Weblogs, or blogs for short, were created as a tool for people to create online journals without the need of any programming experience or knowledge. Although not originally intended for use in EFL classes, blogs have immense potential as an extremely valuable tool for the teaching of second language writing. By utilizing free blogging services on the Internet, teachers are capable of creating and storing online supplemental materials for students, post class notes for student review, and give general feedback to the class as a whole and individually. Additionally, students are able to submit assignments online. Taught in a computer room with Internet access, a writing class utilizing blogs that allows students to actually write in class on a computer can be created. The objectives of this paper are 1) to show other teachers how to set up a course using blogs at ‘Blogger' (a free blogging service) and 2) to discuss the advantages of blogs for both teachers and students. The ideas presented are based on an undergraduate level academic and technical writing course taught in the second semester 2005.
Introduction
Weblogs (or blogs) are electronic journals that allow the user to keep records of their writing on a website (Figure 1). In recent years, the use of these electronic journals in education is on the rise, especially in the United States. A good example is the Bay Area Writing Project which has organized the Educational Blogger Network (edBlogNet) with the purpose of helping kindergarten through university teachers “use weblog technology for the teaching of writing and reading across the disciplines” (eBn, 2003). Blogs have been successfully implemented into journalism, political science, and various junior high to university English writing courses for native English speakers. However, the use of blogs in teaching EFL appears to still be in its infancy but has much potential, especially in teaching written communication skills. Campbell (2003) goes into various ways blogs can be used by teachers and students to communicate in an EFL environment. He suggests using class blogs as a forum for students to express opinions, ideas, and interesting information. Additionally, the use of a ‘tutor blog' is a way for teachers to share with students and point them to other interesting links. Duber (2002) also discusses the background of blogs and gives links to several teachers' ‘tutor blogs.' Although the number of articles discussing blogs in an EFL teaching setting has increased recently, few of them discuss group or team blogs that keep student submissions private between the individual student and the teacher.
Figure 1: An example of a student's blog.
The best way to illustrate the use of blogs in the classroom is by showing how to set up and administer a collection of class and student blogs. Since there are several articles that describe various blogging services with their various functions (Hiler, 2000), this article will not get into that topic but rather discuss creating blogs at ‘Blogger' (located at www.blogger.com) in order to give a concrete example.
Setting up a Blog-Based Writing Class
The majority of the ideas presented in this paper were implemented in an undergraduate level academic and technical writing course taught in the second semester 2005. The ideas that were not implemented are from verbal student feedback pertaining to methods of improving the class structure.
Intended Audience for this Section
Blogs are a versatile tool with numerous applications. The ideas presented in this paper are intended for teachers that meet two conditions. First, the teacher can obtain a computer with Internet access and each student will have a computer to use in their department. Secondly, the description presented is intended for teachers who have a) limited or no HTML experience and b) no access to Internet server space. If one has HTML experience and server space, a few more options for creating the class are available that fall beyond the scope of this paper.
Features of the Blog-Based Class
Before choosing a blogging service, one must know what will be required of it. The following is a list containing the features this author felt would be necessary for a successful blog-based class:
• It must be possible for a teacher to create as many “class blogs” as deemed necessary to organize class materials. For example, it must be possible for a teacher to create a blog for class notes and another for posting group feedback (Figure 2).
• The class blogs must be viewable by all students. Furthermore, only the teacher should have administrative privileges to modify these blogs.
• Students must all have their own individual blog for posting assignments. Only two people, the teacher and the student, can view the student's individual blog. Students can edit their own writing and the teacher can add comments to the students' submissions. However, students cannot edit the teacher's comments.
• For the sake of organization, it must be simple for the teacher to change between students' blogs.
• The blogging service must provide server space on the Internet to store class and student blogs.
• The blogging service must be free.
Although there are numerous blogging services available, not all of them fit the stipulations above. In order to have individual student blogs that allow the teacher to add comments and modifications, a blogging service that allows “group blogs” is required. Blogger is one blogging service that allows “group blogs,” as well as the other features previously stated.
;
Figure 2: Blogger's “dashboard” is where all the blogs one is associated with are listed.
Setting Up Class and Student Blogs at Blogger
As shown in Figure 3, an account and blog can be made in three steps. For those without an account, a username and password must be created in the first step. Continuing along the process, the next step is to enter a title and URL for the new blog (Figure 4). The last step is to choose a template to determine font, color and layout of the blog when viewed as a webpage.
Figure 3: The blog creation process as shown on the welcome page of www.blogger.com
Figure 4: In Step 2 of creating a blog, the blog title and URL is entered.
Creation of the class blogs should be done before the first class and assigned relevant blog titles and URLs that communicate the purpose of the blog. For example, a blog of class notes should be titled “class notes.” By creating separate class blogs, information can be efficiently organized. For example, one class blog can be solely for keeping lecture-based material. Another blog can be kept solely for giving group feedback to the class. In this way, students can easily find pertinent information. Other possible class blogs are student assignment instructions, vocabulary, and answers to past assignments. The teacher created class blogs can be used as an example when introducing the concept of blogs to the students.
The creation of all the student blogs can be done on the first day of class. After introducing the class and the class blogs, give students a non-blog related activity and have them come up to the teacher computer one at a time to create their student blog. From the teacher's account, begin the process to create a new blog as previously described. In the first step, enter the student's name as the blog title and have the student enter a name for their URL address. To keep the student blog private, this URL address should not be shared with anyone. Next, quickly have the student choose a template, which can be changed at anytime, for the layout of their blog. After a few moments to process and create the blog, one is ready to start adding to it (Figure 5). However, since the blog was created on the teacher's account, students to do have access to it yet. Adding the students as members to the blogs is the final, most important step in setting up the student blogs. In the ‘settings' menu of each of your blogs, there is a ‘members' option. Here, group members can be added to the blogs via the ‘add team member' button. Following the instructions, have students type their email address in one of the ‘new user' fields and click the ‘save settings' button (Figure 6). There is also space to attach a message with the invitation. After all the students have completed this process, instruct them to check their email. They should all find an invitation from Blogger with a link to follow to join the student-teacher blog. If the students do not have an existing Blogger account, they will need to do so at this point and create a username and password. After the students accept the invitations to join their blogs, the initial set up is complete.
Figure 5: Adding an entry to a blog
Figure 6: Adding a group member to a blog
The Blogger layout can appear confusing at first glance, but actually it is quite simple to navigate and use, especially after the May 9, 2004 design change. Blogger contains a comprehensive help section to aid users. For this reason, only a few points regarding Blogger use and navigation will not be discussed here. After logging in from the main page, www.blogger.com, users are taken to what Blogger refers to as the “dashboard.” In the case of the teacher, all the class blogs and all of the student-teacher group blogs are shown (Figure 2). In the student's case, just the student-teacher group blog is shown. Also, it is important to tell students that when adding or editing a post, it will not be saved until the ‘publish post' button is clicked. Students must be taught the importance of this step or they will lose their work.
Viewing the Teacher Blogs
The teacher created class blogs act just like any other website. Teachers must share the URL of these blogs, decided in the blog creation process (Figure 4), for students to have access to them. An easy way to do this is to create a message to the students containing all the information regarding the class blogs and paste it into the message section of the invitation to join the student blog (Figure 6). It is recommended that students bookmark these URL addresses on their computer.
Advantages of Blogs to Teachers
• The use of blogs is a supplemental aid to the teacher. The amount of time students use their weblogs is at the discretion of the teacher. Students can use it once a semester to submit a paper, weekly for class assignments and notes, or anything in between.
• Computers in the classroom are not a prerequisite for the use of blogs. Thanks to the affordability of today's computers and high speed Internet access, most students have Internet access at home. Many universities have computer classrooms and computer areas for students to access now.
• All of the teacher's notes will be viewable together in chronological order. This is very convenient when preparing lessons that build upon previous material taught in the class.
• It is simple to edit class material if the text can be improved or if something new needs to be added.
• All student writing samples are kept in one place and can be read from any computer connected to the Internet at anytime.
• Teachers can give collective feedback to the class when a recurring mistake is found by adding entries to a “Writing Feedback” class blog. Additionally, individual feedback can be given to individual student blogs.
• In order to save time when giving feedback, save a copy of the messages at an additional teacher-only blog. If a class is taught for several years with different students, teachers might be able to recycle these messages. From this blog, the teacher can select the appropriate message to send to a student regarding their feedback to their homework and writing samples.
Advantages of Blogs to Students
• Students have access to your complete notes on the Internet. Students have the option of previewing the class material before class and reviewing the material after class.
• Because students are connected to the Internet, they have access to online English dictionaries. Students can easily look up words they do not understand by cutting the unknown word and pasting it into an online dictionary.
• Because the class material is organized into sections, students can easily find information.
• Students can read comments for the class as a whole and comments directed at them individually. This maximizes feedback and contact with the teacher.
• Students can observe how their writing has changed over time.
Grading
Many teachers might be hesitant to have students submit online assignments because it is difficult to make comments and corrections. However, it is possible to create a color code system of correction. When correcting student assignments, the teacher can quickly alter the color of particular mistakes by using 2 simple HTML commands surrounding the text to alter:
student mistake .
When viewed as a webpage, instead of seeing the HTML code, the color of the text will have been changed. By simply changing the color to blue, green, brown, orange, etc., different types of mistakes can be indicated. Students, by using a key, can then learn the nature of their errors based on the color of the text. A detailed explanation of this correction system, as well as student feedback regarding it, are beyond the scope of this paper and will be discussed in a future one.
Conclusion
When students graduate from university and begin their careers, the bulk of their writing will not be done with pencil and paper, but rather on a word processor. Therefore, writing classes ought to be set in realistic environment utilizing the writing aids of a computer. Since most universities have computer labs with Internet access, writing teachers can easily create classes utilizing blogs that allow students the chance to write and submit assignments in class. Combined with essential discussion and lecture from the teacher, the utilization of both class and student blogs can effectively maximize student access to class materials and exposure to teacher feedback. As teachers continue to experiment and share their ideas for various applications of blogs for teaching EFL, the number of blog applications can be expected to increase dramatically.
References
• Campbell, A. P. (2003, February). Weblogs for use with ESL classes. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No. 2. from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Campbell-Weblogs.html
• Duber, J. (2002, September). Mad blogs and englishmen. TESL-EJ, Vol. 6. No. 2. from http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ej22/int.html
• eBn – the Educational Blogger Network. (2003, February 5). Bay Area Writing Project News. from http://www.bayareawritingproject.org/bawpNews/2003/02/05
• Hiler, J. (2002, July 22). The microcontent news blogging software roundup:
• Part one of the weblog industry report. Microcontent News. from http://www.microcontentnews.com/articles/blogware.htm
Tuesday, May 24, 2005
INTERNET AND LANGUAGE TEACHING IN INDONESIA; ITS DEVELOPMENTS AND PROBLEMS IN THE CONTEXT OF ITB LANGUAGE CENTRE
In this paper the writer is going to share the experiences of using CALL especially Internet in the teaching of English to ITB students at ITB Language Centre and Department of Sosioteknologi. The writer is also going to share his experiences in running CALL workshops in Indonesia and overseas..
ITB Language Centre started programming a cyber self-study for ITB students in 1998. The site was popular but then the site itself faced many problems; relating the activities in the cyber self-study with the students’ needs and classroom activities, teachers’ knowledge of internet and the developments of the site are going to be discussed. Considering the weaknesses of cyber self-study, mailing lists were used to support the teaching of academic writing and technical writing. These mailing lists have advantages and disadvantages to be discussed. The recent use of ‘bloggers or blogs’ in teaching writing will also be discussed and shared.
To complete the sharing of the use of internet in teaching English at ITB, the writer is also going to share the positive results of CALL workshops at some universities, such as Universitas Negeri Papua, Universitas Cenderawsih, Universitas Pattimura, Universitas Haluoleo, Universitas Negeri Jakarta and many more.
Introduction
The internet offers many new remarkable facilities and new ways of communication. Yet the speed with which new product, hardware updates and software development are delivered and adapted for use by companies, universities and by individual means that it’s difficult even for the most committed enthusiast to keep abreast of the market and an eye on the opportunities now emerging.
The resources available in cyber – space are growing daily: so too do the opportunities for ELT professionals in many fields. And, whatever area of ELT business one’s engaged with commercial development, materials creation, publishing, as an agent or provider, teacher, or student – there now exist some exciting opportunities ahead.
The internet is dominated by two main activities: first the exchange electronic mail (email) and second, viewing – and sometimes interacting material on the World Wide Web (WWW). Both kinds of Internet use are discussed here, together with a variety of related activities relevant to ELT.
The idea of developing CALL at ITB
In the late 1990s ITB Language Centre established a Local Area Network (LAN) with 5 computers connected to the internet through campus network. In the year of 2000 a website was designed for the language centre, and published at http://www.lc.itb.ac.id which was previously published at a free domain (http://www.geocities.com/eltcitb and http://uptitb.tripod.com). The interactive site for self study (cyber self study) was started to be designed to give students more practice outside classroom and the language centre. The design of the cyber self study is to provide more self access materials that are not available at the self access centre. The cyber self study was also introduced to ELTECs (English language Teaching Contacts Scheme, http://www.britishcouncil.org/eltecs.htm) east Asia members interested in IT in 2000 in Chiang Mai and in 2002 in Bangkok.
In the self access centre students are able to use the available facilities, such as watching CNN, BBC or other TV programs and read English books, magazines and journals. The students can also do grammar, listening, writing and reading exercises designed for self study. The idea of establishing resource centre with self study materials is premised on ideas about empowering learners since most of the students enrolling at the language centre are adult learners. Hiemstra, R. (1991) points out that research in self-directed learning (SDL) during the past 25 years has demonstrated that most of adult learners prefer to take considerable responsibility for their own learning. The students of the language centre can use the facilities at the resource centre from 09.00 – 20.00 from Monday to Friday, and they usually study at the resource centre before their class.
www.lc.itb.ac.id/selfstudy.htm
This cyber self study site is mainly categorized into three sub-heading; Lesson, Quiz and other pages. Under lesson heading, students can access frequently asked materials such as the use of articles, subject-verb agreement, countable uncountable rules and many more. This site is intended to give accessible materials related to classroom activities.
Under the Academic Writing button www.lc.itb.ac.id/writing/academicwriting.htm there are useful materials for students who have problem with writing in term of generating ideas, grammar rules, writing a draft and even punctuations. This page is linked to Purdue University Writing Lab. http://owl.english.purdue.edu. Under the Free Lesson (reading), the students are directed to open http://www.english-to-go/tolesson.htm where they can practice reading and check the answer after doing the exercises. The material on this page is updated weekly. This page is also good for a reading teacher who needs supplementary materials.
Under the subject verb agreement, count and non count nouns and adverb order, present perfect, articles, adjectives and scientific presentation button students can study these materials on their own. One of the reasons to have such page is to provide students with materials which they keep asking from semester to semester. In short this page is specially designed to respond to frequently asked questions from students.
Interactive Quiz
The idea of developing interactive quiz was inspired by the self directed learning material at the resource centre where the students can choose various materials for self study. Students have the freedom to choose the materials, time, space and the phase of study in the resource centre. In other words, students have the complete control and responsibility of their learning. Even they score, evaluate or check their own work. Computers have become a “home” for most ITB students. They have to use computer in dealing with their subjects such as math, writing assignments, simulation and even programming for certain departments. Realizing that they are much more at home with keyboard, mouse, monitor, and discs than they are with pencil, paper and books, interactive quizzes are developed. The role of these pages are to provide exercises that can be done anytime, anywhere they like with the help of computer connected to the internet. The quizzes are classified into several buttons such as writing, quizzes for TOEFL class, reading, conversation, vocabulary, and various quizzes from all over the world. These exercises are written for students taking courses at ITB Language centre. Some are product of the teachers and some are links to various existing sites. All of the interactive quizzes provide instant feedback in various forms depending on the type of software used.
Other pages
This page consists of various links to ELT sites which are useful and worthwhile for students;
grammar (http://www.drgrammar.org/)
reading (http://www.readingsoft.com/)
practice your English (http://www.englishpractice.com/)
English as Global language (http://www.globalenglish.com/)
An Online Textbook for Technical Writing
o (http://www.io.com/~hcexres/tcm1603/acchtml/acctoc.html)
Learning Oral English Online (http://www.rong-chang.com/book/)
Idioms in Conversation (http://www.comenius.com/idioms/)
News, Stories, song you can download (http://www.efl.net/)
CNNSF (http://literacynet.org/cnnsf)
English for Petroleum (http://www.naturalgas.org/)
Introducing the site to students
Orientation about the site (www.lc.itb.ac.id) to the students is conducted at the beginning of the class together with the orientation on how to be an independent learner, and how to use the resource centre. The orientation is conducted by the class teacher and course programmer at the Resource Centre and ended by doing some exercises from the site (www.lc.itb.ac.id/selfstudy.htm). The self study site is also announced and advised to be visited by ITB students taking academic writing, technical writing, academic presentation, seminar presentation, and reading class at Socio-technology Department. Not only the students but also the English teachers have the orientation about what available in the web so that the teachers can give input in term of content. The site is updated from time to time.
A simple survey
A counter to tract the number of visitors was installed on February 2000 and the number of visitors (clicks) was 135458 (April 23, 2005). A survey was conducted to find out the usefulness of the website. The survey was conducted in 2003 at ITB Language centre. There are 605 respondents, they were students of ITB language centre who were taking English classes. They were from ITB and various universities and high schools around Bandung, and were asked to complete the questionnaire. The result of the questionnaire shows;
5% of the respondents visited the course information, 30% the cyber self study (lesson), 80% the cyber self study (quiz) and only 2% visited the bulletin board.
80% found out about www.lc.itb.ac.id from the orientation by the class teacher, 10% from friends, 8% from www.itb.ac.id internal search engine and 2% other sources.
When they were asked to rate from 0 – 10 with 0 being poor, 5 being good, and 10 being excellent;
o 80% rated 8, 18% rated 6 and 2% rated 5 for content
o 10% rated 8, 60% rated 7, 15% rated 5, 10% rated 4, 5% rated 3 for visual attractiveness.
o 20% rated 8, 5% rated 7, 40% rated 6, 20% rated 5 and 15% rated 4 for ease the browsing the website
o 10% rated 7, 10% rated 6, 50% rated 5 and 30% rated 4 for overall design/layout.
o 2% rated 9, 70% rated 8, 8% rated 7, 10% rated 6 and 10% rated 5 for the usefulness of the website.
o 12% rated 9, 60% rated 8, 8% rated 7, 10% rated 6 and 10% rated 5 for the usefulness of the website links.
Similar survey was conducted in at the end of semester I and II in 2004. The respondents were 710 ITB first year students. The result of the questionnaire shows similar result with the one conducted previously at ITB language centre.
25% of the respondents visited the course information, 30% the cyber self study (lesson), 40% the cyber self study (quiz) and only 20% visited the bulletin board.
70% found out about www.lc.itb.ac.id from the orientation by the class teacher, 10% from friends, 18% from www.itb.ac.id (internal search engine) and 2% other sources.
When they were asked to rate from 0 – 10 with 0 being poor, 5 being good, and 10 being excellent;
o 70% rated 8, 8% rated 6, 20% rated 5, and 2% rated 4 for content
o 2% rated 8, 16% rated 7, 6% rated 6, 14% rated 5, 24% rated 4, 28% rated 3 and 10% rated 2 for visual attractiveness.
o 10% rated 8, 5% rated 7, 40% rated 6, 20% rated 5 and 25% rated 4 for ease the browsing the website
o 3% rated 7, 8% rated 6, 35% rated 5, 30% rated 4 and 24% rated 3 for overall design/layout.
o 1% rated 9, 30% rated 8, 18% rated 7, 15% rated 6, 10% rated 5, 24% rated 4 and 2% rated 3 for the usefulness of the website.
o 8% rated 9, 48% rated 8, 18% rated 7, 10% rated 6 and 16% rated 5 for the usefulness of the website links.
The result of both surveys shows that the students visit the web especially the cyber self study and find it useful. The improvements and changes are done when necessary, such as adding the exercises, checking the active links, improving the layout or content.
Links for English teacher
The idea of having these pages was inspired by a workshop attended by the writer in Hong Kong in 1999 sponsored by the British Council Jakarta. At that time a workshop on “using internet for teaching elementary and secondary school” showed how rich with authentic materials, articles on ELT and many more useful reading materials related to ELT the internet has. The internet also provides medium to draw on many resources and perhaps the most valuable contribution of the internet to English Language Teaching is its role in facilitating teacher’s access to professional material, contacts and resources (Warschauer, 2000). Under the category of “Links for English Teacher’ there are useful links to various sites such as ELT articles, lesson plans and materials, bilingual education, linguistics, business English, drama, quiz, teacher training and many more. These sites were introduced to ITB English teachers and updated from time to time when they come across good ELT sites. Unfortunately these pages were dormant since 2002.
The development of cyber self study in Indonesia
The cyber self study for the first time was introduced in 2000 at a seminar on “Testing and Evaluation in the context of Undergraduate English Language Teaching in Indonesia” at ITB (www.lc.itb.ac.id/selfstudy.htm) and similar site was developed by Pusat Pelatihan Bahasa Universitas Gajah Mada (http://ppb-ugm.tripod.com/ppbugm/home.htm) and introduced in the same occasion. The second time was at the TEFLIN Conference in the same year in Jakarta. Started with these two events, many language centers showed interest in designing similar sites. Five English Language Teaching Centers (ELTC) from eastern part of Indonesia under the funding of CIDA conducted series of workshops on Internet and English language Teaching. The first workshop was held at ITB for 1 week as an introduction. Then each ELTC conducted several workshops at their center in the year of 2001 – 2003. As a result of these activities then several sites on ELT in Indonesia were designed;
www.geocities.com/eltckendari/index.htm; (ELTC UNHALU)
www.geocities.com/eltcmanado/index.htm; (ELTC UNSRAT)
www.geocities.com/ababarakati/index.htm; (ABBA BARAKATI Kendari)
http://eltc-uncen.tripod.com (ELTC UNCEN)
http://eltc-unipa.tripod.com (ELTC UNIPA)
In helping those centres in developing cyber self study materials, an interactive site for creating quiz is published at http://sby4.tripod.com with log in password ‘gumawang’. With minimum knowledge of web designed, this site is quite easy to be used. Some of the sites mentioned are developing well and some are in the stage of dormant. For example, ELTC UNHALU has also developed SAC online using local area network and one of the staff has initiated a website for ELT journal http://www.geocities.com/language_journal and also a website for NUESP www.geocities.com/nuesp_indonesia. Other ELTCs have similar problem in developing the sites. Most of the train teachers in web designed and cyber self study are continuing their studies for master degrees overseas and the LAN at each centre is still being developed. With financial and and academic support from CIDA in the past and now FKSU, these centers will potentially give significant contribution to the development of the use of internet in ELT. There will be interesting development of internet and ELT in Indonesia. Some other centers have conducted similar training but have minimum support from the institution, such as Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Universitas Indonesia, Universitas Riau and Universitas Sriwijaya. In developing such sites commitment, funding and support from the institution are needed. It seems that they are aware of the potential but not ready to develop and explore the use of internet for ELT institutionally and letting the staff to develop and explore by themselves.
Mailing list
Other development of IT is mailing list. How to create a mailing list was also introduced to ELTCs for teaching purposes. By setting a mailing list students can easily communicate to each other and to their teacher outside class. Discussion can be generated outside the class before classroom discussion or a follow up discussion could be done after class activities. An example of this kind is fisika2000@yahoogroups.com where students and teacher generate discussion before technical writing class, discussing follow up activities after class or teacher assigns tasks to students via mailing list. Another mailing list introduced to ELTCs was eltc2000@yahoogroups.com. Initially the mailing list of eltc2000@yahoogroups.com was intended only for communication among the member of ELTC under the support of FKSU. It was founded in August 2000, with 10 members. It was used to communicate among the members to discuss meetings and workshops held at one of the centre. Right now the member of this mailing list grows up to 178 not only limited to ELTCs members and it is now used for communicating issues related to ELT including sharing teaching materials. Most of the members are English teachers from Indonesia. Another Indonesian English teachers’ mailing list is itbconf2002@yahoogroups.com founded in July 2001. The initial intention of having this mailing list was to send email about British Council – ITB – university of Leeds conference which is held once every two years. Now this mailing list is also used to communicate other national and international seminars. The member of this mailing list is 312.
Web Log
One of the disadvantages of mailing list for teaching is limited space in the mail account. It is difficult to imagine of having a mailing list for technical writing with 30 – 40 students in the class. The teacher and students will receive at least 30 similar emails in a week. By week 4, there will be 30 x 4 = 120 mail.
Considering the disadvantages of mailing list for teaching purposes, the use of web log is possibly a good idea and worth trying. Web log or popularly known as blog is a web page that serves a publicly accessible personal journal for an individual. This easily designed web page can be created for free at www.blogger.com. At the moment the writer is doing experiment in teaching several classes using web log. The main reasons for using web log are among others;
it is easy to be designed
it is free
it takes just minutes to create
it is user friendly
it gives flexibility in setting
it can be used as a discussion board
One of the sites is http://dephan.blogspot.com. This site is specially designed for students from ministry of defense who are going to continue their post graduate study in defense management which is going to be delivered in English. They have to take intensive English classes at ITB language centre. In encouraging the students to read and write for real purposes out side the class, this site was designed. This site is an open site, where anyone can participate in the discussion. Tasks and reading texts are posted and students write comments on the website. Similar web log was designed for intensive pre-departure course at http://bappenas.blogspot.com.
Other web logs used for tutorial in teaching academic writing (2 credits), technical writing (3 credits) and critical reading and writing (4 credits) are http://acjati.blogspot.com, http://acf.blogspot.com, http://twjati.blogspot.com, and http://sbmjati.blogspot.com. These web logs are restricted to member; only the member of the class can write comments or posting comments. To be a member of one of these classes, student must have a personal web log, and they are encourage to write a personal journal in their own web log, and visit a good example of web log for practice writing, http://dianehome.blogspot.com created by a Taiwanese taking intensive course in Canada. Sharing web log with a advanced writing and grammar class http://ievcc.blogspot.com/ is an interesting experience. The students taking the advanced writing and grammar using http://ievcc.blogspot.com/ are also advised to visit http://acjati.blogspot.com, http://acf.blogspot.com, http://twjati.blogspot.com, and http://sbmjati.blogspot.com by their teacher. A direct result of this collaboration, students from ITB and Canada communicate using emails and writing comments on their personal web log. Since the writer is in the middle of doing this experiment, questionnaire to evaluate these web logs has not been properly conducted yet.
To exercise the ease of creating web log at www.blogger.com , an online course was set up for free using http://teaching-writing-online.blogspot.com with 15 participants. The course was designed for four weeks with at least twice a week of instruction using email (blogger_jati@yahoogroups.com) and web log. By the end of week three all participants have their own web log and ready to use it for teaching purposes. With this experience the writer is planning to run similar free online course in designing interactive quiz using http://sby4.tripod.com
Conclusion
When English teachers become aware of new development in technology or pedagogical theory, the first reaction is frequently “Sound good!”, and the second “but?” There is almost invariably conflict between the ideals stimulated by the technological innovation and the practical matters which must be taken into consideration for effective implementation of those ideals. Cyber self study, links for teachers, mailing list, and web log are only simple examples of how to use and integrate internet in English language teaching. Internet creates a new responsibility for English teacher to be aware of the power of the resource and to explore ways of putting it to use in improving the learning environment.
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Hiemstra, R. (1991). Self-directed learning for older adults. In American Association of Retired Persons, Resourceful aging: Today and tomorrow (Volume V, Lifelong Education, Conference Proceedings), Washington, D.C.: American Association of Retired Persons.
Higgins, J. (1988). Language, learners and computers. London: Longman.
Jones, C., & Fortescue, S. (1987). Using computers in the language classroom. London: Longman.
Kenning, M.-M., & Kenning, M. J. (1990). Computers and language learning: Current theory and practice. New York: Ellis Horwood.
Schank, R. C., & Cleary, C. (1995). Engines for education. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Warschauer. M, Heidi Shetzer, and Christine meloni (2000). Internet for English Teaching. TESOL.
ITB Language Centre started programming a cyber self-study for ITB students in 1998. The site was popular but then the site itself faced many problems; relating the activities in the cyber self-study with the students’ needs and classroom activities, teachers’ knowledge of internet and the developments of the site are going to be discussed. Considering the weaknesses of cyber self-study, mailing lists were used to support the teaching of academic writing and technical writing. These mailing lists have advantages and disadvantages to be discussed. The recent use of ‘bloggers or blogs’ in teaching writing will also be discussed and shared.
To complete the sharing of the use of internet in teaching English at ITB, the writer is also going to share the positive results of CALL workshops at some universities, such as Universitas Negeri Papua, Universitas Cenderawsih, Universitas Pattimura, Universitas Haluoleo, Universitas Negeri Jakarta and many more.
Introduction
The internet offers many new remarkable facilities and new ways of communication. Yet the speed with which new product, hardware updates and software development are delivered and adapted for use by companies, universities and by individual means that it’s difficult even for the most committed enthusiast to keep abreast of the market and an eye on the opportunities now emerging.
The resources available in cyber – space are growing daily: so too do the opportunities for ELT professionals in many fields. And, whatever area of ELT business one’s engaged with commercial development, materials creation, publishing, as an agent or provider, teacher, or student – there now exist some exciting opportunities ahead.
The internet is dominated by two main activities: first the exchange electronic mail (email) and second, viewing – and sometimes interacting material on the World Wide Web (WWW). Both kinds of Internet use are discussed here, together with a variety of related activities relevant to ELT.
The idea of developing CALL at ITB
In the late 1990s ITB Language Centre established a Local Area Network (LAN) with 5 computers connected to the internet through campus network. In the year of 2000 a website was designed for the language centre, and published at http://www.lc.itb.ac.id which was previously published at a free domain (http://www.geocities.com/eltcitb and http://uptitb.tripod.com). The interactive site for self study (cyber self study) was started to be designed to give students more practice outside classroom and the language centre. The design of the cyber self study is to provide more self access materials that are not available at the self access centre. The cyber self study was also introduced to ELTECs (English language Teaching Contacts Scheme, http://www.britishcouncil.org/eltecs.htm) east Asia members interested in IT in 2000 in Chiang Mai and in 2002 in Bangkok.
In the self access centre students are able to use the available facilities, such as watching CNN, BBC or other TV programs and read English books, magazines and journals. The students can also do grammar, listening, writing and reading exercises designed for self study. The idea of establishing resource centre with self study materials is premised on ideas about empowering learners since most of the students enrolling at the language centre are adult learners. Hiemstra, R. (1991) points out that research in self-directed learning (SDL) during the past 25 years has demonstrated that most of adult learners prefer to take considerable responsibility for their own learning. The students of the language centre can use the facilities at the resource centre from 09.00 – 20.00 from Monday to Friday, and they usually study at the resource centre before their class.
www.lc.itb.ac.id/selfstudy.htm
This cyber self study site is mainly categorized into three sub-heading; Lesson, Quiz and other pages. Under lesson heading, students can access frequently asked materials such as the use of articles, subject-verb agreement, countable uncountable rules and many more. This site is intended to give accessible materials related to classroom activities.
Under the Academic Writing button www.lc.itb.ac.id/writing/academicwriting.htm there are useful materials for students who have problem with writing in term of generating ideas, grammar rules, writing a draft and even punctuations. This page is linked to Purdue University Writing Lab. http://owl.english.purdue.edu. Under the Free Lesson (reading), the students are directed to open http://www.english-to-go/tolesson.htm where they can practice reading and check the answer after doing the exercises. The material on this page is updated weekly. This page is also good for a reading teacher who needs supplementary materials.
Under the subject verb agreement, count and non count nouns and adverb order, present perfect, articles, adjectives and scientific presentation button students can study these materials on their own. One of the reasons to have such page is to provide students with materials which they keep asking from semester to semester. In short this page is specially designed to respond to frequently asked questions from students.
Interactive Quiz
The idea of developing interactive quiz was inspired by the self directed learning material at the resource centre where the students can choose various materials for self study. Students have the freedom to choose the materials, time, space and the phase of study in the resource centre. In other words, students have the complete control and responsibility of their learning. Even they score, evaluate or check their own work. Computers have become a “home” for most ITB students. They have to use computer in dealing with their subjects such as math, writing assignments, simulation and even programming for certain departments. Realizing that they are much more at home with keyboard, mouse, monitor, and discs than they are with pencil, paper and books, interactive quizzes are developed. The role of these pages are to provide exercises that can be done anytime, anywhere they like with the help of computer connected to the internet. The quizzes are classified into several buttons such as writing, quizzes for TOEFL class, reading, conversation, vocabulary, and various quizzes from all over the world. These exercises are written for students taking courses at ITB Language centre. Some are product of the teachers and some are links to various existing sites. All of the interactive quizzes provide instant feedback in various forms depending on the type of software used.
Other pages
This page consists of various links to ELT sites which are useful and worthwhile for students;
grammar (http://www.drgrammar.org/)
reading (http://www.readingsoft.com/)
practice your English (http://www.englishpractice.com/)
English as Global language (http://www.globalenglish.com/)
An Online Textbook for Technical Writing
o (http://www.io.com/~hcexres/tcm1603/acchtml/acctoc.html)
Learning Oral English Online (http://www.rong-chang.com/book/)
Idioms in Conversation (http://www.comenius.com/idioms/)
News, Stories, song you can download (http://www.efl.net/)
CNNSF (http://literacynet.org/cnnsf)
English for Petroleum (http://www.naturalgas.org/)
Introducing the site to students
Orientation about the site (www.lc.itb.ac.id) to the students is conducted at the beginning of the class together with the orientation on how to be an independent learner, and how to use the resource centre. The orientation is conducted by the class teacher and course programmer at the Resource Centre and ended by doing some exercises from the site (www.lc.itb.ac.id/selfstudy.htm). The self study site is also announced and advised to be visited by ITB students taking academic writing, technical writing, academic presentation, seminar presentation, and reading class at Socio-technology Department. Not only the students but also the English teachers have the orientation about what available in the web so that the teachers can give input in term of content. The site is updated from time to time.
A simple survey
A counter to tract the number of visitors was installed on February 2000 and the number of visitors (clicks) was 135458 (April 23, 2005). A survey was conducted to find out the usefulness of the website. The survey was conducted in 2003 at ITB Language centre. There are 605 respondents, they were students of ITB language centre who were taking English classes. They were from ITB and various universities and high schools around Bandung, and were asked to complete the questionnaire. The result of the questionnaire shows;
5% of the respondents visited the course information, 30% the cyber self study (lesson), 80% the cyber self study (quiz) and only 2% visited the bulletin board.
80% found out about www.lc.itb.ac.id from the orientation by the class teacher, 10% from friends, 8% from www.itb.ac.id internal search engine and 2% other sources.
When they were asked to rate from 0 – 10 with 0 being poor, 5 being good, and 10 being excellent;
o 80% rated 8, 18% rated 6 and 2% rated 5 for content
o 10% rated 8, 60% rated 7, 15% rated 5, 10% rated 4, 5% rated 3 for visual attractiveness.
o 20% rated 8, 5% rated 7, 40% rated 6, 20% rated 5 and 15% rated 4 for ease the browsing the website
o 10% rated 7, 10% rated 6, 50% rated 5 and 30% rated 4 for overall design/layout.
o 2% rated 9, 70% rated 8, 8% rated 7, 10% rated 6 and 10% rated 5 for the usefulness of the website.
o 12% rated 9, 60% rated 8, 8% rated 7, 10% rated 6 and 10% rated 5 for the usefulness of the website links.
Similar survey was conducted in at the end of semester I and II in 2004. The respondents were 710 ITB first year students. The result of the questionnaire shows similar result with the one conducted previously at ITB language centre.
25% of the respondents visited the course information, 30% the cyber self study (lesson), 40% the cyber self study (quiz) and only 20% visited the bulletin board.
70% found out about www.lc.itb.ac.id from the orientation by the class teacher, 10% from friends, 18% from www.itb.ac.id (internal search engine) and 2% other sources.
When they were asked to rate from 0 – 10 with 0 being poor, 5 being good, and 10 being excellent;
o 70% rated 8, 8% rated 6, 20% rated 5, and 2% rated 4 for content
o 2% rated 8, 16% rated 7, 6% rated 6, 14% rated 5, 24% rated 4, 28% rated 3 and 10% rated 2 for visual attractiveness.
o 10% rated 8, 5% rated 7, 40% rated 6, 20% rated 5 and 25% rated 4 for ease the browsing the website
o 3% rated 7, 8% rated 6, 35% rated 5, 30% rated 4 and 24% rated 3 for overall design/layout.
o 1% rated 9, 30% rated 8, 18% rated 7, 15% rated 6, 10% rated 5, 24% rated 4 and 2% rated 3 for the usefulness of the website.
o 8% rated 9, 48% rated 8, 18% rated 7, 10% rated 6 and 16% rated 5 for the usefulness of the website links.
The result of both surveys shows that the students visit the web especially the cyber self study and find it useful. The improvements and changes are done when necessary, such as adding the exercises, checking the active links, improving the layout or content.
Links for English teacher
The idea of having these pages was inspired by a workshop attended by the writer in Hong Kong in 1999 sponsored by the British Council Jakarta. At that time a workshop on “using internet for teaching elementary and secondary school” showed how rich with authentic materials, articles on ELT and many more useful reading materials related to ELT the internet has. The internet also provides medium to draw on many resources and perhaps the most valuable contribution of the internet to English Language Teaching is its role in facilitating teacher’s access to professional material, contacts and resources (Warschauer, 2000). Under the category of “Links for English Teacher’ there are useful links to various sites such as ELT articles, lesson plans and materials, bilingual education, linguistics, business English, drama, quiz, teacher training and many more. These sites were introduced to ITB English teachers and updated from time to time when they come across good ELT sites. Unfortunately these pages were dormant since 2002.
The development of cyber self study in Indonesia
The cyber self study for the first time was introduced in 2000 at a seminar on “Testing and Evaluation in the context of Undergraduate English Language Teaching in Indonesia” at ITB (www.lc.itb.ac.id/selfstudy.htm) and similar site was developed by Pusat Pelatihan Bahasa Universitas Gajah Mada (http://ppb-ugm.tripod.com/ppbugm/home.htm) and introduced in the same occasion. The second time was at the TEFLIN Conference in the same year in Jakarta. Started with these two events, many language centers showed interest in designing similar sites. Five English Language Teaching Centers (ELTC) from eastern part of Indonesia under the funding of CIDA conducted series of workshops on Internet and English language Teaching. The first workshop was held at ITB for 1 week as an introduction. Then each ELTC conducted several workshops at their center in the year of 2001 – 2003. As a result of these activities then several sites on ELT in Indonesia were designed;
www.geocities.com/eltckendari/index.htm; (ELTC UNHALU)
www.geocities.com/eltcmanado/index.htm; (ELTC UNSRAT)
www.geocities.com/ababarakati/index.htm; (ABBA BARAKATI Kendari)
http://eltc-uncen.tripod.com (ELTC UNCEN)
http://eltc-unipa.tripod.com (ELTC UNIPA)
In helping those centres in developing cyber self study materials, an interactive site for creating quiz is published at http://sby4.tripod.com with log in password ‘gumawang’. With minimum knowledge of web designed, this site is quite easy to be used. Some of the sites mentioned are developing well and some are in the stage of dormant. For example, ELTC UNHALU has also developed SAC online using local area network and one of the staff has initiated a website for ELT journal http://www.geocities.com/language_journal and also a website for NUESP www.geocities.com/nuesp_indonesia. Other ELTCs have similar problem in developing the sites. Most of the train teachers in web designed and cyber self study are continuing their studies for master degrees overseas and the LAN at each centre is still being developed. With financial and and academic support from CIDA in the past and now FKSU, these centers will potentially give significant contribution to the development of the use of internet in ELT. There will be interesting development of internet and ELT in Indonesia. Some other centers have conducted similar training but have minimum support from the institution, such as Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Universitas Indonesia, Universitas Riau and Universitas Sriwijaya. In developing such sites commitment, funding and support from the institution are needed. It seems that they are aware of the potential but not ready to develop and explore the use of internet for ELT institutionally and letting the staff to develop and explore by themselves.
Mailing list
Other development of IT is mailing list. How to create a mailing list was also introduced to ELTCs for teaching purposes. By setting a mailing list students can easily communicate to each other and to their teacher outside class. Discussion can be generated outside the class before classroom discussion or a follow up discussion could be done after class activities. An example of this kind is fisika2000@yahoogroups.com where students and teacher generate discussion before technical writing class, discussing follow up activities after class or teacher assigns tasks to students via mailing list. Another mailing list introduced to ELTCs was eltc2000@yahoogroups.com. Initially the mailing list of eltc2000@yahoogroups.com was intended only for communication among the member of ELTC under the support of FKSU. It was founded in August 2000, with 10 members. It was used to communicate among the members to discuss meetings and workshops held at one of the centre. Right now the member of this mailing list grows up to 178 not only limited to ELTCs members and it is now used for communicating issues related to ELT including sharing teaching materials. Most of the members are English teachers from Indonesia. Another Indonesian English teachers’ mailing list is itbconf2002@yahoogroups.com founded in July 2001. The initial intention of having this mailing list was to send email about British Council – ITB – university of Leeds conference which is held once every two years. Now this mailing list is also used to communicate other national and international seminars. The member of this mailing list is 312.
Web Log
One of the disadvantages of mailing list for teaching is limited space in the mail account. It is difficult to imagine of having a mailing list for technical writing with 30 – 40 students in the class. The teacher and students will receive at least 30 similar emails in a week. By week 4, there will be 30 x 4 = 120 mail.
Considering the disadvantages of mailing list for teaching purposes, the use of web log is possibly a good idea and worth trying. Web log or popularly known as blog is a web page that serves a publicly accessible personal journal for an individual. This easily designed web page can be created for free at www.blogger.com. At the moment the writer is doing experiment in teaching several classes using web log. The main reasons for using web log are among others;
it is easy to be designed
it is free
it takes just minutes to create
it is user friendly
it gives flexibility in setting
it can be used as a discussion board
One of the sites is http://dephan.blogspot.com. This site is specially designed for students from ministry of defense who are going to continue their post graduate study in defense management which is going to be delivered in English. They have to take intensive English classes at ITB language centre. In encouraging the students to read and write for real purposes out side the class, this site was designed. This site is an open site, where anyone can participate in the discussion. Tasks and reading texts are posted and students write comments on the website. Similar web log was designed for intensive pre-departure course at http://bappenas.blogspot.com.
Other web logs used for tutorial in teaching academic writing (2 credits), technical writing (3 credits) and critical reading and writing (4 credits) are http://acjati.blogspot.com, http://acf.blogspot.com, http://twjati.blogspot.com, and http://sbmjati.blogspot.com. These web logs are restricted to member; only the member of the class can write comments or posting comments. To be a member of one of these classes, student must have a personal web log, and they are encourage to write a personal journal in their own web log, and visit a good example of web log for practice writing, http://dianehome.blogspot.com created by a Taiwanese taking intensive course in Canada. Sharing web log with a advanced writing and grammar class http://ievcc.blogspot.com/ is an interesting experience. The students taking the advanced writing and grammar using http://ievcc.blogspot.com/ are also advised to visit http://acjati.blogspot.com, http://acf.blogspot.com, http://twjati.blogspot.com, and http://sbmjati.blogspot.com by their teacher. A direct result of this collaboration, students from ITB and Canada communicate using emails and writing comments on their personal web log. Since the writer is in the middle of doing this experiment, questionnaire to evaluate these web logs has not been properly conducted yet.
To exercise the ease of creating web log at www.blogger.com , an online course was set up for free using http://teaching-writing-online.blogspot.com with 15 participants. The course was designed for four weeks with at least twice a week of instruction using email (blogger_jati@yahoogroups.com) and web log. By the end of week three all participants have their own web log and ready to use it for teaching purposes. With this experience the writer is planning to run similar free online course in designing interactive quiz using http://sby4.tripod.com
Conclusion
When English teachers become aware of new development in technology or pedagogical theory, the first reaction is frequently “Sound good!”, and the second “but?” There is almost invariably conflict between the ideals stimulated by the technological innovation and the practical matters which must be taken into consideration for effective implementation of those ideals. Cyber self study, links for teachers, mailing list, and web log are only simple examples of how to use and integrate internet in English language teaching. Internet creates a new responsibility for English teacher to be aware of the power of the resource and to explore ways of putting it to use in improving the learning environment.
Bibliography
Chapelle, A. C. (2001). Computer Applications in Second language Acquisition, Foundation for teaching, testing, and research. Cambridge University Press.
Crytal, D. (2001). Language and the Internet. Cambridge University Press.
Dunkel, P. (Ed.). (1991). Computer-assisted language learning and testing: Research issues and practice. New York, NY: Newbury House.
Hardisty, D., & Windeatt, S. (1989) CALL. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Healey, D., & Johnson, N. (Ed.). (1995). 1995 TESOL CALL interest section software list. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.
Hiemstra, R. (1991). Self-directed learning for older adults. In American Association of Retired Persons, Resourceful aging: Today and tomorrow (Volume V, Lifelong Education, Conference Proceedings), Washington, D.C.: American Association of Retired Persons.
Higgins, J. (1988). Language, learners and computers. London: Longman.
Jones, C., & Fortescue, S. (1987). Using computers in the language classroom. London: Longman.
Kenning, M.-M., & Kenning, M. J. (1990). Computers and language learning: Current theory and practice. New York: Ellis Horwood.
Schank, R. C., & Cleary, C. (1995). Engines for education. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Warschauer. M, Heidi Shetzer, and Christine meloni (2000). Internet for English Teaching. TESOL.
Presentation Skills
Presentations can be fun. They are your chance to speak your mind, to strut your stuff and to tell the people what the world is really like. While you hold the stage, the audience is bound by good manners to sit still and watch the performance.
The Objectives of Communication
The single most important observation is that the objective of communication is not the transimission but the reception. The whole preparation, presentation and content of a speech must therefore be geared not to the speaker but to the audience. The presentation of a perfect project plan is a failure if the audience do not understand or are not persuaded of its merits. A customers' tour is a waste of time if they leave without realising the full worth of your product. The objective of communication is to make your message understood and remembered.
The main problem with this objective is, of course, the people to whom you are talking. The average human being has a very short attention span and a million other things to think about. Your job in the presentation is to reach through this mental fog and to hold the attention long enough to make your point.
The Plan
It is difficult to over estimate the importance of careful preparation. Five minutes on the floor in front of senior management could decide the acceptance of a proposal of several months duration for the manager and the whole team. With so much potentially at stake, the presenter must concentrate not only upon the facts being presented but upon the style, pace, tone and ultimately tactics which should be used. As a rule of thumb for an average presentation, no less than 1 hour should be spent in preparation for 5 minutes of talking.
Suppose you have a talk to give, where do you start?
Formulate your Objectives
The starting point in planning any speech is to formulate a precise objective. This should take the form of a simple, concise statement of intent. For example, the purpose of your speech may be to obtain funds, to evaluate a proposal, or to motivate your team. No two objectives will be served equally well by the same presentation; and if you are not sure at the onset what you are trying to do, it is unlikely that your plan will achieve it.
One question is: how many different objectives can you achieve, in say, 30 minutes - and the answer: not many. In the end it is far more productive to achieve one goal than to blunder over several. The best approach is to isolate the essential objective and to list at most two others which can be addressed providing they do not distract from the main one. Focus is key. If you do not focus upon your objective, it is unlikely that the audience will.
Identify the Audience
The next task is to consider the audience to determine how best to achieve your objectives in the context of these people. Essentially this is done by identifying their aims and objectives while attending your presentation. If you can somehow convince them they are achieving those aims while at the same time achieving your own, you will find a helpful and receptive audience. For instance, if you are seeking approval for a new product plan from senior management it is useful to know and understand their main objectives. If they are currently worried that their product range is out of date and old fashioned, you would emphasise the innovative aspects of your new product; if they are fearful about product diversification you would then emphasise how well your new product fits within the existing catalogue.
This principal of matching the audience aims, however, goes beyond the simple salesmanship of an idea - it is the simplest and most effective manner of obtaining their attention at the beginning. If your opening remarks imply that you understand their problem and that you have a solution, then they will be flattered at your attention and attentive to your every word.
Structure
All speeches should have a definite structure or format; a talk without a structure is a woolly mess. If you do not order your thoughts into a structured manner, the audience will not be able to follow them. Having established the aim of your presentation you should choose the most appropriate structure to achieve it.
However, the structure must not get in the way of the main message. If it is too complex, too convoluted or simply too noticeable the audience will be distracted. If a section is unnecessary to the achievement of your fundamental objectives, pluck it out.
Sequential Argument
One of the simplest structures is that of sequential argument which consists of a series of linked statements ultimately leading to a conclusion. However, this simplicity can only be achieved by careful and deliberate delineation between each section. One technique is the use of frequent reminders to the audience of the main point which have proceeded and explicit explanation of how the next topic will lead on from this.
Hierarchical Decomposition
In hierarchical decomposition the main topic is broken down into sub-topics and each sub-topics into smaller topics until eventually everything is broken down into very small basic units. In written communication this is a very powerful technique because it allows the reader to re-order the presentation at will, and to return to omitted topics at a later date. In verbal communication the audience is restricted to the order of the presenter and the hierarchy should be kept simple reinforced. As with sequential argument it is useful to summarise each section at its conclusion and to introduce each major new section with a statement of how it lies in the hierarchical order.
Question Orientated
The aim of many presentations given by managers is to either explain a previous decision or to seek approval for a plan of action. In these cases, the format can be question orientated. The format is to introduce the problem and any relevant background, and then to outline the various solutions to that problem listing the advantages and disadvantages of each solution in turn. Finally, all possible options are summarised in terms of their pro's and con's, and either the preferred solution is presented for endorsement by the audience or a discussion is initiated leading to the decision. One trick for obtaining the desired outcome is to establish during the presentation the criteria by which the various options are to be judged; this alone should allow you to obtain your desired outcome.
Pyramid
In a newspaper, the story is introduced in its entirety in a catchy first paragraph. The next few paragraphs repeat the same information only giving further details to each point. The next section repeats the entire story again, but developing certain themes within each of the sub-points and again adding more information. This is repeated until the reporter runs out of story. The editor then simply decides upon the newsworthiness of the report and cuts from the bottom to the appropriate number of column inches.
There are two main advantages to this style for presentations. Firstly, it can increase the audiences receptiveness to the main ideas. Since at every stage of the pyramid they have all ready become familiar with the ideas and indeed know what to expect next. This sense of deja vu can falsely give the impression that what they are hearing are their own ideas. The second advantage is that the duration of the talk can be easily altered by cutting the talk in exactly the same way as the newspaper editor might have done to the news story. This degree of flexibility may be useful if the same presentation is to be used several times in different situations.
The Meaty Sandwich
The simplest and most direct format remains the meaty sandwich. This is the simple beginning-middle-end format in which the main meat of the exposition is contained in the middle and is proceeded by an introduction and followed by a summary and conclusion. This is really the appropriate format for all small sub-sections in all the previous structures. If the talk is short enough, or the topic simple enough, it can indeed form the entirity of the presentation.
The Beginning
It is imperative to plan your beginning carefully; there are five main elements:
Get their attention
Too often in a speech, the first few minutes of the presentation are lost while people adjust their coats, drift in with coffee and finish the conversation they were having with the person next to them. You only have a limited time and every minute is precious to you so, from the beginning, make sure they pay attention.
Establish a theme
Basically, you need to start the audience thinking about the subject matter of your presentation. This can be done by a statement of your main objective, unless for some reason you wish to keep it hidden. They will each have some experience or opinions on this and at the beginning you must make them bring that experience into their own minds.
Present a structure
If you explain briefly at the beginning of a talk how it is to proceed, then the audience will know what to expect. This can help to establish the theme and also provide something concrete to hold their attention. Ultimately, it provides a sense of security in the promise that this speech too will end.
Create a rapport
If you can win the audience over in the first minute, you will keep them for the remainder. You should plan exactly how you wish to appear to them and use the beginning to establish that relationship. You may be presenting yourself as their friend, as an expert, perhaps even as a judge, but whatever role you choose you must establish it at the very beginning.
Administration
When planning your speech you should make a note to find out if there are any administrative details which need to be announced at the beginning of your speech. This is not simply to make yourself popular with the people organising the session but also because if these details are over looked the audience may become distracted as they wonder what is going to happen next.
The Ending
The final impression you make on the audience is the one they will remember. Thus it is worth planning your last few sentences with extreme care.
As with the beginning, it is necessary first to get their attention, which will have wandered. This requires a change of pace, a new visual aid or perhaps the introduction of one final culminating idea. In some formats the ending will be a summary of the main points of the talk. One of the greatest mistakes is to tell the audience that this is going to be a summary because at that moment they simply switch off. Indeed it is best that the ending comes unexpectedly with that final vital phrase left hanging in the air and ringing round their memories. Alternatively the ending can be a flourish, with the pace and voice leading the audience through the final crescendo to the inevitable conclusion.
Visual Aids
Most people expect visual reinforcement for any verbal message being delivered. While it would be unfair to blame television entirely for this, it is useful to understand what the audience is accustomed to, for two reasons: firstly, you can meet their expectations using the overhead projector, a slide show, or even a video presentation; secondly, if you depart from the framework of a square picture flashed before their eyes, and use a different format, then that novelty will be most arresting. For instance, if you are describing the four functions of a project manager then display the four "hats" he/she must wear; if you are introducing the techniques of brainstorming then brandish a fishing rod to "fish for" ideas.
With traditional visual aids however, there are a few rules which should be followed to ensure they are used effectively. Most are common sense, and most are commonly ignored. As with all elements of a speech, each different viewfoil should have a distinct purpose - and if it has no purpose it should be removed. With that purpose firmly in mind you should design the viewfoil for that purpose. Some viewfoils are there to reinforce the verbal message and so to assist in recall; others are used to explain information which can be more easily displayed than discussed: and some viewfoils are designed simply for entertainment and thus to pace the presentation.
If your viewfoil is scruffy then your audience will notice that, and not what is written upon it. Do not clutter a viewfoil or it will confuse rather than assist. Do not simply photocopy information if there is more data on the page than you wish to present; in these cases, the data should be extracted before being displayed. Make sure that your writing can be read from the back of the room. Talk to the audience, not the visual aid.
The Delivery
"The human body is truly fascinating - there are some I could watch all day" - Anon
Whatever you say and whatever you show; it is you, yourself which will remain the focus of the audience's attention. If you but strut and fret your hour upon the stage and then are gone, no-one will remember what you said. The presenter has the power both to kill the message and to enhance it a hundred times beyond its worth. Your job as a manager is to use the potential of the presentation to ensure that the audience is motivated and inspired rather than disconcerted or distracted. There are five key facets of the human body which deserve attention in presentation skills: the eyes, the voice, the expression, the appearance, and how you stand.
The Eyes
The eyes are said to be the key to the soul and are therefore the first and most effective weapon in convincing the audience of your honesty, openness and confidence in the objectives of your presentation. This impression may of course be totally false, but here is how to convey it.
Even when in casual conversation, your feelings of friendship and intimacy can be evaluated by the intensity and duration of eye contact. During the presentation you should use this to enhance your rapport with the audience by establishing eye contact with each and every member of the audience as often as possible. For small groups this is clearly possible but it can also be achieved in large auditoriums since the further the audience is away from the presenter the harder it is to tell precisely where he or she is looking. Thus by simply staring at a group of people at the back of a lecture theatre it is possible to convince each of them individually that he or she is the object of your attention. During presentations, try to hold your gaze fixed in specific directions for five or six seconds at a time. Shortly after each change in position, a slight smile will convince each person in that direction that you have seen and acknowledged them.
The Voice
After the eyes comes the voice, and the two most important aspects of the voice for the public speaker are projection and variation. It is important to realise from the onset that few people can take their ordinary conversation voice and put it on stage. If you can, then perhaps you should move to Hollywood. The main difference comes in the degree of feedback which you can expect from the person to whom you are talking. In ordinary conversation you can see from the expression, perhaps a subtle movement of the eye, when a word or phrase has been missed or misunderstood. In front of an audience you have to make sure that this never happens. The simple advice is to slow down and to take your time. Remember the audience is constrained by good manners not to interrupt you so there is no need to maintain a constant flow of sound. A safe style is to be slightly louder and slightly slower than a fire-side chat with slightly deaf aunt. As you get used to the sound, you can adjust it by watching the audience.
A monotone speech is both boring and soporific, so it is important to try to vary the pitch and speed of your presentation. At the very least, each new sub-section should be proceeded by a pause and a change in tone to emphasise the delineation. If tonal variation does not come to you naturally try making use of rhetorical questions throughout your speech, since most British accents rise naturally at the end of a question.
Expression
The audience watch your face. If you are looking listless or distracted then they will be listless and distracted; if you are smiling, they will be wondering why and listen to find out. In normal conversation your meaning is enhanced by facial reinforcement. Thus in a speech you must compensate both for stage nerves and for the distance between yourself and the audience. The message is quite simply: make sure that your facial expressions are natural, only more so.
Appearance
There are many guides to management and presentation styles which lay heavy emphasis upon the way you dress and in the last analysis this is a matter of personal choice. That choice should however be deliberately made. When you are giving a presentation you must dress for the audience, not for yourself; if they think you look out of place, then you are.
As an aside, it is my personal opinion that there exists a code of conduct among engineers which emphasizes the scruffy look, and that in many organisations this tends to set the engineer apart, especially from management. It conveys the subliminal message that the engineer and the manager are not part of the same group and so hinders communication.
Stance
When an actor initially learns a new character part, he or she will instinctively adopt a distinct posture or stance to convey that character. It follows therefore that while you are on stage, your stance and posture will convey a great deal about you. The least you must do is make sure your stance does not convey boredom; at best, you can use your whole body as a dynamic tool to reinforce your rapport with the audience.
The perennial problem is what to do with your hands. These must not wave aimlessly through the air, or fiddle constantly with a pen, or (worst of all visually) juggle change in your trouser pockets. The key is to keep your hands still, except when used in unison with your speech. To train them initially, find a safe resting place which is comfortable for you, and aim to return them there when any gesture is completed.
The Techniques of Speech
Every speaker has a set of "tricks of the trade" which he or she holds dear - the following are a short selection of such advice taken from various sources.
Make an impression
The average audience is very busy: they have husbands and wives, schedules and slippages, cars and mortgages; and although they will be trying very hard to concentrate on your speech, their minds will inevitably stray. Your job is to do something, anything, which captures their attention and makes a lasting impression upon them. Once you have planned your speech and honed it down to its few salient points, isolate the most important and devise some method to make it stick.
Repeat, Repeat
The average audience is very busy: they have husbands or wives etc, etc - but repetition makes them hear. The average audience is easily distracted, and their attention will slip during the most important message of your speech - so repeat it. You don't necessarily have to use the resonant tonal sounds of the repeated phrase, but simply make the point again and again and again with different explanations and in different ways. The classic advice of the Sergeant Major is: "First you tell 'em what you are going to tell 'em, then you tell 'em, then you tell 'em what you told 'em!"
Draw a Sign
Research into teaching has yielded the following observation: "We found that students who failed to get the point did so because they were not looking for it". If the audience knows when to listen, they will. So tell them: the important point is ... .
Draw a Picture
The human brain is used to dealing with images, and this ability can be used to make the message more memorable. This means using metaphors or analogies to express your message. Thus a phrase like "we need to increase the market penetration before there will be sufficient profits for a pay related bonus" becomes "we need a bigger slice of the cake before the feast".
Jokes
The set piece joke can work very well, but it can also lead to disaster. You must choose a joke which is apt, and one which will not offend any member of the audience. This advice tends to rule out all racist, sexist or generally rude jokes. If this seems to rule out all the jokes you can think of, then you should avoid jokes in a speech.
Amusing asides are also useful in maintaining the attention of the audience, and for relieving the tension of the speech. If this comes naturally to you, then it is a useful tool for pacing your delivery to allow periods of relaxation in between your sign-posted major points.
Plain Speech
Yes!
Short and Sweet
One way to polish the presentation of the main point of your speech is to consider it thus. The day before your presentation, you are called to to the office of the divisional vice-president; there you are introduced to the managing director and a representative of the company's major share holder; "O.K." says the vice president "we hear you have got something to say, we'll give you 30 seconds, GO". Can you do it?
If you can crystallise your thoughts and combine your main message with some memorable phrase or imagery, and present them both in 30 seconds then you have either the perfect ending or the basis for a fine presentation.
The Narrative
Everyone loves a story and stories can both instruct and convey a message: Zen Philosophy is recorded in its stories, and Christianity was originally taught in parables. If you can weave your message into a story or a personal annocdote, then you can have them wanting to hear your every word - even if you have to make it up.
Rehearsal
There is no substitute for rehearsal. You can do it in front of a mirror, or to an empty theatre. In both cases, you should accentuate your gestures and vocal projection so that you get used to the sound and sight of yourself. Do not be put off by the mirror - remember: you see a lot less of yourself than your friends do.
Relaxation
If you get nervous just before the show, either concentrate on controlling your breathing or welcome the extra adrenaline. The good news is that the audience will never notice your nerves nearly as much as you think. Similarly, if you dry-up in the middle - smile, look at your notes, and take your time. The silence will seem long to you, but less so to the audience.
Conclusion
Once the speech is over and you have calmed down, you should try to honestly evaluate your performance. Either alone, or with the help of a friend in the audience, decide what was the least successful aspect of your presentation and resolve to concentrate on that point in the next talk you give. If it is a problem associated with the preparation, then deal with it there; if it is a problem with your delivery, write yourself a reminder note and put it in front of you at the next talk.
Practice is only productive when you make a positive effort to improve - try it.
I am a lecturer of Departement Sosioteknologi, ITB. Teaching Reading, Academic Writing, Technical Writing and Seminar presentation. I would like to get feedback by email (jati@gerbang.lc.itb.ac.id).
The Objectives of Communication
The single most important observation is that the objective of communication is not the transimission but the reception. The whole preparation, presentation and content of a speech must therefore be geared not to the speaker but to the audience. The presentation of a perfect project plan is a failure if the audience do not understand or are not persuaded of its merits. A customers' tour is a waste of time if they leave without realising the full worth of your product. The objective of communication is to make your message understood and remembered.
The main problem with this objective is, of course, the people to whom you are talking. The average human being has a very short attention span and a million other things to think about. Your job in the presentation is to reach through this mental fog and to hold the attention long enough to make your point.
The Plan
It is difficult to over estimate the importance of careful preparation. Five minutes on the floor in front of senior management could decide the acceptance of a proposal of several months duration for the manager and the whole team. With so much potentially at stake, the presenter must concentrate not only upon the facts being presented but upon the style, pace, tone and ultimately tactics which should be used. As a rule of thumb for an average presentation, no less than 1 hour should be spent in preparation for 5 minutes of talking.
Suppose you have a talk to give, where do you start?
Formulate your Objectives
The starting point in planning any speech is to formulate a precise objective. This should take the form of a simple, concise statement of intent. For example, the purpose of your speech may be to obtain funds, to evaluate a proposal, or to motivate your team. No two objectives will be served equally well by the same presentation; and if you are not sure at the onset what you are trying to do, it is unlikely that your plan will achieve it.
One question is: how many different objectives can you achieve, in say, 30 minutes - and the answer: not many. In the end it is far more productive to achieve one goal than to blunder over several. The best approach is to isolate the essential objective and to list at most two others which can be addressed providing they do not distract from the main one. Focus is key. If you do not focus upon your objective, it is unlikely that the audience will.
Identify the Audience
The next task is to consider the audience to determine how best to achieve your objectives in the context of these people. Essentially this is done by identifying their aims and objectives while attending your presentation. If you can somehow convince them they are achieving those aims while at the same time achieving your own, you will find a helpful and receptive audience. For instance, if you are seeking approval for a new product plan from senior management it is useful to know and understand their main objectives. If they are currently worried that their product range is out of date and old fashioned, you would emphasise the innovative aspects of your new product; if they are fearful about product diversification you would then emphasise how well your new product fits within the existing catalogue.
This principal of matching the audience aims, however, goes beyond the simple salesmanship of an idea - it is the simplest and most effective manner of obtaining their attention at the beginning. If your opening remarks imply that you understand their problem and that you have a solution, then they will be flattered at your attention and attentive to your every word.
Structure
All speeches should have a definite structure or format; a talk without a structure is a woolly mess. If you do not order your thoughts into a structured manner, the audience will not be able to follow them. Having established the aim of your presentation you should choose the most appropriate structure to achieve it.
However, the structure must not get in the way of the main message. If it is too complex, too convoluted or simply too noticeable the audience will be distracted. If a section is unnecessary to the achievement of your fundamental objectives, pluck it out.
Sequential Argument
One of the simplest structures is that of sequential argument which consists of a series of linked statements ultimately leading to a conclusion. However, this simplicity can only be achieved by careful and deliberate delineation between each section. One technique is the use of frequent reminders to the audience of the main point which have proceeded and explicit explanation of how the next topic will lead on from this.
Hierarchical Decomposition
In hierarchical decomposition the main topic is broken down into sub-topics and each sub-topics into smaller topics until eventually everything is broken down into very small basic units. In written communication this is a very powerful technique because it allows the reader to re-order the presentation at will, and to return to omitted topics at a later date. In verbal communication the audience is restricted to the order of the presenter and the hierarchy should be kept simple reinforced. As with sequential argument it is useful to summarise each section at its conclusion and to introduce each major new section with a statement of how it lies in the hierarchical order.
Question Orientated
The aim of many presentations given by managers is to either explain a previous decision or to seek approval for a plan of action. In these cases, the format can be question orientated. The format is to introduce the problem and any relevant background, and then to outline the various solutions to that problem listing the advantages and disadvantages of each solution in turn. Finally, all possible options are summarised in terms of their pro's and con's, and either the preferred solution is presented for endorsement by the audience or a discussion is initiated leading to the decision. One trick for obtaining the desired outcome is to establish during the presentation the criteria by which the various options are to be judged; this alone should allow you to obtain your desired outcome.
Pyramid
In a newspaper, the story is introduced in its entirety in a catchy first paragraph. The next few paragraphs repeat the same information only giving further details to each point. The next section repeats the entire story again, but developing certain themes within each of the sub-points and again adding more information. This is repeated until the reporter runs out of story. The editor then simply decides upon the newsworthiness of the report and cuts from the bottom to the appropriate number of column inches.
There are two main advantages to this style for presentations. Firstly, it can increase the audiences receptiveness to the main ideas. Since at every stage of the pyramid they have all ready become familiar with the ideas and indeed know what to expect next. This sense of deja vu can falsely give the impression that what they are hearing are their own ideas. The second advantage is that the duration of the talk can be easily altered by cutting the talk in exactly the same way as the newspaper editor might have done to the news story. This degree of flexibility may be useful if the same presentation is to be used several times in different situations.
The Meaty Sandwich
The simplest and most direct format remains the meaty sandwich. This is the simple beginning-middle-end format in which the main meat of the exposition is contained in the middle and is proceeded by an introduction and followed by a summary and conclusion. This is really the appropriate format for all small sub-sections in all the previous structures. If the talk is short enough, or the topic simple enough, it can indeed form the entirity of the presentation.
The Beginning
It is imperative to plan your beginning carefully; there are five main elements:
Get their attention
Too often in a speech, the first few minutes of the presentation are lost while people adjust their coats, drift in with coffee and finish the conversation they were having with the person next to them. You only have a limited time and every minute is precious to you so, from the beginning, make sure they pay attention.
Establish a theme
Basically, you need to start the audience thinking about the subject matter of your presentation. This can be done by a statement of your main objective, unless for some reason you wish to keep it hidden. They will each have some experience or opinions on this and at the beginning you must make them bring that experience into their own minds.
Present a structure
If you explain briefly at the beginning of a talk how it is to proceed, then the audience will know what to expect. This can help to establish the theme and also provide something concrete to hold their attention. Ultimately, it provides a sense of security in the promise that this speech too will end.
Create a rapport
If you can win the audience over in the first minute, you will keep them for the remainder. You should plan exactly how you wish to appear to them and use the beginning to establish that relationship. You may be presenting yourself as their friend, as an expert, perhaps even as a judge, but whatever role you choose you must establish it at the very beginning.
Administration
When planning your speech you should make a note to find out if there are any administrative details which need to be announced at the beginning of your speech. This is not simply to make yourself popular with the people organising the session but also because if these details are over looked the audience may become distracted as they wonder what is going to happen next.
The Ending
The final impression you make on the audience is the one they will remember. Thus it is worth planning your last few sentences with extreme care.
As with the beginning, it is necessary first to get their attention, which will have wandered. This requires a change of pace, a new visual aid or perhaps the introduction of one final culminating idea. In some formats the ending will be a summary of the main points of the talk. One of the greatest mistakes is to tell the audience that this is going to be a summary because at that moment they simply switch off. Indeed it is best that the ending comes unexpectedly with that final vital phrase left hanging in the air and ringing round their memories. Alternatively the ending can be a flourish, with the pace and voice leading the audience through the final crescendo to the inevitable conclusion.
Visual Aids
Most people expect visual reinforcement for any verbal message being delivered. While it would be unfair to blame television entirely for this, it is useful to understand what the audience is accustomed to, for two reasons: firstly, you can meet their expectations using the overhead projector, a slide show, or even a video presentation; secondly, if you depart from the framework of a square picture flashed before their eyes, and use a different format, then that novelty will be most arresting. For instance, if you are describing the four functions of a project manager then display the four "hats" he/she must wear; if you are introducing the techniques of brainstorming then brandish a fishing rod to "fish for" ideas.
With traditional visual aids however, there are a few rules which should be followed to ensure they are used effectively. Most are common sense, and most are commonly ignored. As with all elements of a speech, each different viewfoil should have a distinct purpose - and if it has no purpose it should be removed. With that purpose firmly in mind you should design the viewfoil for that purpose. Some viewfoils are there to reinforce the verbal message and so to assist in recall; others are used to explain information which can be more easily displayed than discussed: and some viewfoils are designed simply for entertainment and thus to pace the presentation.
If your viewfoil is scruffy then your audience will notice that, and not what is written upon it. Do not clutter a viewfoil or it will confuse rather than assist. Do not simply photocopy information if there is more data on the page than you wish to present; in these cases, the data should be extracted before being displayed. Make sure that your writing can be read from the back of the room. Talk to the audience, not the visual aid.
The Delivery
"The human body is truly fascinating - there are some I could watch all day" - Anon
Whatever you say and whatever you show; it is you, yourself which will remain the focus of the audience's attention. If you but strut and fret your hour upon the stage and then are gone, no-one will remember what you said. The presenter has the power both to kill the message and to enhance it a hundred times beyond its worth. Your job as a manager is to use the potential of the presentation to ensure that the audience is motivated and inspired rather than disconcerted or distracted. There are five key facets of the human body which deserve attention in presentation skills: the eyes, the voice, the expression, the appearance, and how you stand.
The Eyes
The eyes are said to be the key to the soul and are therefore the first and most effective weapon in convincing the audience of your honesty, openness and confidence in the objectives of your presentation. This impression may of course be totally false, but here is how to convey it.
Even when in casual conversation, your feelings of friendship and intimacy can be evaluated by the intensity and duration of eye contact. During the presentation you should use this to enhance your rapport with the audience by establishing eye contact with each and every member of the audience as often as possible. For small groups this is clearly possible but it can also be achieved in large auditoriums since the further the audience is away from the presenter the harder it is to tell precisely where he or she is looking. Thus by simply staring at a group of people at the back of a lecture theatre it is possible to convince each of them individually that he or she is the object of your attention. During presentations, try to hold your gaze fixed in specific directions for five or six seconds at a time. Shortly after each change in position, a slight smile will convince each person in that direction that you have seen and acknowledged them.
The Voice
After the eyes comes the voice, and the two most important aspects of the voice for the public speaker are projection and variation. It is important to realise from the onset that few people can take their ordinary conversation voice and put it on stage. If you can, then perhaps you should move to Hollywood. The main difference comes in the degree of feedback which you can expect from the person to whom you are talking. In ordinary conversation you can see from the expression, perhaps a subtle movement of the eye, when a word or phrase has been missed or misunderstood. In front of an audience you have to make sure that this never happens. The simple advice is to slow down and to take your time. Remember the audience is constrained by good manners not to interrupt you so there is no need to maintain a constant flow of sound. A safe style is to be slightly louder and slightly slower than a fire-side chat with slightly deaf aunt. As you get used to the sound, you can adjust it by watching the audience.
A monotone speech is both boring and soporific, so it is important to try to vary the pitch and speed of your presentation. At the very least, each new sub-section should be proceeded by a pause and a change in tone to emphasise the delineation. If tonal variation does not come to you naturally try making use of rhetorical questions throughout your speech, since most British accents rise naturally at the end of a question.
Expression
The audience watch your face. If you are looking listless or distracted then they will be listless and distracted; if you are smiling, they will be wondering why and listen to find out. In normal conversation your meaning is enhanced by facial reinforcement. Thus in a speech you must compensate both for stage nerves and for the distance between yourself and the audience. The message is quite simply: make sure that your facial expressions are natural, only more so.
Appearance
There are many guides to management and presentation styles which lay heavy emphasis upon the way you dress and in the last analysis this is a matter of personal choice. That choice should however be deliberately made. When you are giving a presentation you must dress for the audience, not for yourself; if they think you look out of place, then you are.
As an aside, it is my personal opinion that there exists a code of conduct among engineers which emphasizes the scruffy look, and that in many organisations this tends to set the engineer apart, especially from management. It conveys the subliminal message that the engineer and the manager are not part of the same group and so hinders communication.
Stance
When an actor initially learns a new character part, he or she will instinctively adopt a distinct posture or stance to convey that character. It follows therefore that while you are on stage, your stance and posture will convey a great deal about you. The least you must do is make sure your stance does not convey boredom; at best, you can use your whole body as a dynamic tool to reinforce your rapport with the audience.
The perennial problem is what to do with your hands. These must not wave aimlessly through the air, or fiddle constantly with a pen, or (worst of all visually) juggle change in your trouser pockets. The key is to keep your hands still, except when used in unison with your speech. To train them initially, find a safe resting place which is comfortable for you, and aim to return them there when any gesture is completed.
The Techniques of Speech
Every speaker has a set of "tricks of the trade" which he or she holds dear - the following are a short selection of such advice taken from various sources.
Make an impression
The average audience is very busy: they have husbands and wives, schedules and slippages, cars and mortgages; and although they will be trying very hard to concentrate on your speech, their minds will inevitably stray. Your job is to do something, anything, which captures their attention and makes a lasting impression upon them. Once you have planned your speech and honed it down to its few salient points, isolate the most important and devise some method to make it stick.
Repeat, Repeat
The average audience is very busy: they have husbands or wives etc, etc - but repetition makes them hear. The average audience is easily distracted, and their attention will slip during the most important message of your speech - so repeat it. You don't necessarily have to use the resonant tonal sounds of the repeated phrase, but simply make the point again and again and again with different explanations and in different ways. The classic advice of the Sergeant Major is: "First you tell 'em what you are going to tell 'em, then you tell 'em, then you tell 'em what you told 'em!"
Draw a Sign
Research into teaching has yielded the following observation: "We found that students who failed to get the point did so because they were not looking for it". If the audience knows when to listen, they will. So tell them: the important point is ... .
Draw a Picture
The human brain is used to dealing with images, and this ability can be used to make the message more memorable. This means using metaphors or analogies to express your message. Thus a phrase like "we need to increase the market penetration before there will be sufficient profits for a pay related bonus" becomes "we need a bigger slice of the cake before the feast".
Jokes
The set piece joke can work very well, but it can also lead to disaster. You must choose a joke which is apt, and one which will not offend any member of the audience. This advice tends to rule out all racist, sexist or generally rude jokes. If this seems to rule out all the jokes you can think of, then you should avoid jokes in a speech.
Amusing asides are also useful in maintaining the attention of the audience, and for relieving the tension of the speech. If this comes naturally to you, then it is a useful tool for pacing your delivery to allow periods of relaxation in between your sign-posted major points.
Plain Speech
Yes!
Short and Sweet
One way to polish the presentation of the main point of your speech is to consider it thus. The day before your presentation, you are called to to the office of the divisional vice-president; there you are introduced to the managing director and a representative of the company's major share holder; "O.K." says the vice president "we hear you have got something to say, we'll give you 30 seconds, GO". Can you do it?
If you can crystallise your thoughts and combine your main message with some memorable phrase or imagery, and present them both in 30 seconds then you have either the perfect ending or the basis for a fine presentation.
The Narrative
Everyone loves a story and stories can both instruct and convey a message: Zen Philosophy is recorded in its stories, and Christianity was originally taught in parables. If you can weave your message into a story or a personal annocdote, then you can have them wanting to hear your every word - even if you have to make it up.
Rehearsal
There is no substitute for rehearsal. You can do it in front of a mirror, or to an empty theatre. In both cases, you should accentuate your gestures and vocal projection so that you get used to the sound and sight of yourself. Do not be put off by the mirror - remember: you see a lot less of yourself than your friends do.
Relaxation
If you get nervous just before the show, either concentrate on controlling your breathing or welcome the extra adrenaline. The good news is that the audience will never notice your nerves nearly as much as you think. Similarly, if you dry-up in the middle - smile, look at your notes, and take your time. The silence will seem long to you, but less so to the audience.
Conclusion
Once the speech is over and you have calmed down, you should try to honestly evaluate your performance. Either alone, or with the help of a friend in the audience, decide what was the least successful aspect of your presentation and resolve to concentrate on that point in the next talk you give. If it is a problem associated with the preparation, then deal with it there; if it is a problem with your delivery, write yourself a reminder note and put it in front of you at the next talk.
Practice is only productive when you make a positive effort to improve - try it.
I am a lecturer of Departement Sosioteknologi, ITB. Teaching Reading, Academic Writing, Technical Writing and Seminar presentation. I would like to get feedback by email (jati@gerbang.lc.itb.ac.id).
Language Planning and the Influence of IT in English Language Teaching and Learning; in the context of ITB.
Abstract
The status development of English as a subject changes from time to time. In the past English was taught at ITB for only 1 semester with 2 credits. Due to the limited time allocation, only reading comprehension was taught. The writer assumes that most of the universities in Indonesia apply the same policy to the undergraduate non English department. In this paper the writer is going to share the experience of language policy at ITB, this policy was the one described by Cooper (1989) “… refers to deliberate effort to influence the allocation of functions among a community’s languages.” The changing policy from 1 semester (2 credits) reading comprehension to 3 semesters with 8 credits was such an interesting process to be shared. Now the first year students have to take a placement test (TOEFL like is used), and are placed in reading comprehension, presentation skills or academic writing class (2 credits). In the second year or third year they have to take technical writing (3 credits) and seminar presentation skills (3 credits) and 2 semesters with 8 credits (Critical Reading and Writing) for first and second semester of School Business and Management ITB (S1 program).The above language policy change was very much influenced by the use of IT in the teaching and learning of English. The role and the influence of interactive web exercises, mailing list and online learning will be discussed.
Introduction
The role of English language is so important in Indonesian universities, because most of the textbooks, journals, and other sources of learning are written in English. Some universities in Indonesia are aware of the importance and give special attention to the teaching and learning of English; for instance by establishing a language centre, student English forum and giving more credits to English as a subject. However some universities in Indonesia still consider English as a minor subject, especially in the non English departments, similar to other humanities subjects such as religion, ethics ‘pancasila dan kewarganegaraan’, ‘sosiologi industri’ and anthropology. Alwasilah (2000) mentioned eleven characteristics of English in the preparatory year, which is known as ‘MKDU’: ”(a) it has been part of the system for a long time, (b) it is a compulsory subject, (c) it is 2 credits, (d) taught in 1st or 2nd semester, (e) the classes are relatively large and heterogenic, (f) they are taught by junior lecturers who do not have enough experience in teaching, (g) it is not a prestigious subject, (h) there is no inter and intra institution coordination (i) lack of facilities, (j) the material has already been given at high school and (k) there is no placement test or classification according to students’ ability and there is no needs analysis” (Alwasilah, 2000). Considering the importance of English and the need for change, the writer will elaborate the changes in English teaching policy at ITB. It will mostly based on what has been done by the English unit and Language Centre at ITB.
The teaching and learning of English in the 1980s at ITB
English is a compulsory subject for the first year students at ITB. As there are more than 1000 students taking English each year, English has become an important subject. It is important because students are expected to be able to read English texts during their study. So there is an expectation from the institution that the English Unit’s program will bring students up to the level of competence required to read those texts.
English was given for only one semester in all departments which was about 32 hours of instruction. In the late 1980s, the English unit compiled its own teaching materials to cater for the needs of the institution. The texts were selected from various sources ranging from mining to mathematics, followed by reading comprehension questions. Lists of words (related to science and technology) were also given. Essential grammatical items were included in the texts. The assumption was that by reading scientific texts and understanding some grammatical items and vocabulary the students would be able to cope with the texts related to their study. The compilation was influenced by the beliefs that;
- comprehension of written material is inescapably intertwined with vocabulary.
- students must learn the rules of formal syntax in order to become fluent reader.
- students may lack knowledge of English grammar.
- students encounter too much unfamiliar vocabulary to grasp the overall concept conveyed in the sentence.
- students are challenged when reading idiomatic expressions and unfamiliar grammatical constructions.
The number of students was around 80 to 100 from various departments in one class. Explanation about the reading texts followed by the vocabulary, grammar explanation and reading comprehension questions was a standard delivery. This teaching methodology was very similar to how they were taught in high schools and they were bored in class. Alwasilah (2000) pointed out the causes of the failure of such programs; “...the texts are not challenging for students”, and “…there is no clear benefit of reading the texts provided by the lecturer” (Alwasilah, 2000). Some of the students made use of their senior’s English textbook, where the exercises have been done so they were not really paying attention to the lesson. Some of them even did other work such as calculus, mathematics or other subjects. Moreover the heterogenic English ability of the class made it really difficult to handle. Some students were really advanced compared to others. They had usually have memorized a great deal of English vocabulary words and acquired a certain reading level before entering ITB due to the competitive entrance exams. They came to class just for the sake a ticket to sit in the final examination and obtain the final grade, which required only 80% attendance,
In the late 1980s with the growing emphasis on ESP, the departments at ITB demanded different English teaching materials for ITB students. The English unit tried to respond to this demand by selecting reading materials from their particular fields of study. The exercises using specialized vocabulary were constructed by the English teachers. As a result several handbooks for students from various departments were compiled. It was assumed that by teaching reading in a particular content area students would understand English texts in their field of study and would be motivated to study English because they would be working with materials on topics with which they were already familiar. The process of compiling, reviewing, and revising the materials took longer time than expected. There was no chance for teachers to review each other’s materials as they were in different specialized areas and because of lack of time. This dilemma was to the one described by Johns (1991) :“ … teachers find themselves in a situation where they are expected to produce a course that exactly matches the needs of a group of learners, but are expected to do so with no, or very limited, preparation time" (Johns, 1991, p. 91). There was a particularly acute problem at this stage concerning the preparation of materials for the students of certain departments whose number of students was small. The department of astronomy, for example, had a very small number of students. Therefore, since it was not feasible to cater for these students, they were put together with the students from other departments. The handbook was therefore a compilation of texts of 2 or more fields of study.
During the instruction the students felt at ease at the beginning because of their familiarity with the material. Later on they got bored as they could understand the material very easily because of their background knowledge. This phenomenon is described by Hudson (1991:86) as “technical content schema,” a term defined as knowledge of content from subjects that students have already mastered. Technical content schema of science seems to play a greater role in students’ comprehension of scientific texts than their language background. Furthermore, the teachers had the psychological burden of having to learn a lot more about a certain field of study. Consequently they had to consult subject teachers, particularly for some very specialized terms. The coordinator of the English program had difficulty finding replacements for teachers who were absent for one reason or another because each teacher specialized in only one particular field of study. There were also problems with both mid-term tests and the final tests. Each teacher had to make two sets of tests during the semester. The ability to construct a test varied among the teachers. The levels of difficulty of the tests, therefore, varied too. As a result we could not make a standardization of test scores, because an A in one department was not necessarily equal to an A in other departments. Besides, the students’ performance on the test might be explained their background knowledge, not by their competence in English. So there was a question whether we were testing the students’ mastery of the content or that of the language.
The role of ITB Language Centre in the 1980s
The Language Centre was established under the Vice Rector I (Vice Rector of Academic Affair) in the response to the demand of pre-departure training courses for ITB young lecturers before continuing their studies in English speaking countries. With the help of the British Council, the centre was developed. The most significant contribution to the changes in teaching methods, materials and English language teaching in general, was the involvement of a teacher specialist from the British Council. The teacher specialist was deeply involved in developing the teaching materials, methodology and resource centre for Self Directed Learning. Weekly workshops on materials developments, how to compiled materials from different sources to meet the students’ need and the target language were conducted, involving those who were teaching the undergraduate program. The communicative approach and other teaching methods were introduced to the teachers. New teaching activities such as pair work, group work, and discussion were introduced and slowly changed the teachers’ view of teaching. Other important events were the academic link with Leeds University and Universitas Gajah Mada, started in 1991 to 1997. Eighteen language teaching specialists from these two institutions visited Leeds through the link and nine visits to Indonesia were made by Leeds staff. Joint research was carried out, and several joint presentations were made at international conferences. Teaching materials for students and reference materials for teachers were developed through these links.
The teaching and learning of English in the 1990s at ITB
One outcome of the academic link with UGM-Leeds has resulted in the changing of teaching materials used in the undergraduate program. Some research in material development was done by giving samples of skill-based teaching materials and the activities to students. The results showed that the students liked the materials and so the teachers were challenged to do something different. The idea of changing the teaching material was also inspired by two seminars which were held by ITB in collaboration with the British Council Jakarta and University of Leeds; in 1995: Teaching English to University Undergraduates in the Indonesian Context: Issues and Developments, and in 1997 English in High Schools and Universities in Indonesia; Bridging the Gap.
In preparing the materials, books related to reading and reading skills in which the exercises were provided were used as models. As the workbook was prepared by the teachers as a team, each teacher prepared only one chapter to two chapters instead of one whole workbook. Later the teachers reviewed into each other’s material and made necessary changes. The aim of preparing the new workbook was to give the students the opportunity to learn other skills apart from knowing how to answer comprehension questions in their own field. In the new workbook the students are trained how to make predictions, to skim and scan a text, to find main ideas in paragraphs, etc. The compilation was influenced by the beliefs that;
- reading skills such as making predictions before reading, skimming, scanning, getting the main ideas, note taking are very important aspects in reading.
- the reading skills mastered by the students in Indonesian language should be utilized.
- outside the English classroom different reading purposes are inherent students encounter a variety of situations.
During the instruction the teachers are challenged to be creative and the students have opportunities to apply the reading skills which they are acquiring when reading their textbooks. The teachers have to prepare supplementary materials for exercises to be done spontaneously in class. These supplementary materials can also be used for quizzes, and assignments. In addition, the students are asked to submit a text in their own field with their notes on it such as its main ideas, etc. The students are given the skills to be applied when reading texts in their own field. The teachers consult each other on the content of the book. They are able to help each other by taking each other’s class in case one of them is absent for some reasons. The efficiency in teaching is also higher because one teacher can teach in more than one class.
The role of the ITB Language Centre in the 1990s
In the early 1990s the Language Centre not only ran pre-departure courses but also courses for the public. In running the pre-departure courses, which was very intensive, (from 08.00 to 16.30 over the period of three months) the courses were designed by the teacher specialist from the British Council together with the ITB English teachers. There were BELT (Basic English Language Training), and EAP 1 (English for Academic Purposes). As mentioned earlier, the teacher specialist gave training on various methods of teaching and material development to cater the students’ need. The teacher specialist was also involved in the development of the resource centre, and guided the design of the learning activities.
The resource centre is equipped with books, magazines, news papers cassettes, videos and other home made-materials designed for facilitating self–directed learning. At the beginning of Self Directed Learning sessions of the pre-departure program, a workshop with the participants is always conducted to give an overview of SDL, followed by a series of workshops to find out about individual needs, choice of individual learning techniques, setting goals, specifying objectives, use of learning contracts and other matters related to SDL. Self-directed study involves various activities and resources, such as self-guided reading, participation in study groups, internships, and reflective writing activities. It is expected that individual learners can become empowered to take more responsibility for various decisions associated with the learning endeavor. (Hiemstra, R. 1994). Along with the increasing number of courses offered for the public, the Language Centre is also a pre-departure training centre for BAPPENAS and DIKTI.
By the end of 1994, the formal support from the British Council ended. The Language Centre now has to support its own activities without the help of a teacher specialist. However; other types of collaboration with the British Council continues up to now. Testing and Evaluation in the Context of Undergraduate English Language Teaching in Indonesia, the third national conference in collaboration with the British Council and university of Leeds was held in February 2000.
The teaching and learning of English and the role of Language Centre in 2000 up to the present at ITB
After the seminar on Testing and Evaluation in the Context of Undergraduate English Language Teaching in Indonesia, ITB decided to change the ‘English class’ to ‘academic writing class’, ‘presentation skills class’, and ‘reading class’. New students are tested using TOEFL like test, conducted by the Language Centre and students with the score of 500 or above have to take the academic writing class (2 credits), 475 to 499 presentation skills class (2 credits), and 474 or below reading class (2 credits). The academic writing handout has been prepared at the Language Centre and focuses on how to write. It starts with how to write a topic sentence; then various types of paragraph; and ends with essay writing. Similar to the academic writing handout, the presentation skills handout has also been prepared at the Language Centre. Even at the beginning some of the classes were conducted at the Language Centre which has the facilities. The presentation skills class requires a video, to show a model of a presentation, and a video recorder to record students’ presentations. The maximum number of students in this class is twenty. The writing class requires OHP with a maximum of twenty five students in a class. The number of students in a reading class is approximately 40 – 50.
The blooming of internet gives special color to the teaching and learning of English at ITB. Through www.lc.itb.ac.id students are able to search for information related to their particular needs in learning English; do online grammar, vocabulary, writing, reading exercises and many more. With the advance of Information Technology (IT), teaching and learning can effectively change the way students take advantage of IT to gain new and wider resources of information. (Leong 1999) Using the World Wide Web (www), students can search through millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic materials (e.g., newspapers, magazines, book excerpts) exactly tailored to their own interests. For example in conversation class at the Language Centre, a teacher can ask the students to search their favorite singers, or film stars using search engine (www.google.com) in the resource centre, study the files and share the information orally with the rest of the class. Another common use of a search engine in the internet is in teaching reading where students can find their own text and discuss the text with the teacher or other in the class. www.lc.itb.ac.id is not only for students who are studying at the Language Centre but also for ITB students who are taking English class at the English unit.
The big change
The big change in the English teaching and learning at ITB was initiated by the physics department. The physics department proposed an idea of running a technical writing class (3 credits) and seminar presentation (3 credits) to the English unit. These two new subjects are compulsory subjects in the department and the students must take these subjects in the third or fourth year. The syllabus and handout for both were compiled by English teacher and subject teacher from the department of physics. The classes are also handled by English teacher and subject teacher. The English teacher teaches the writing skills or presentation skills and the subject teacher helps the students having problems with technical terms, having difficulties in generating ideas for writing or presentation, or having problem in developing technical concepts. Due to the limited sources for technical writing, students are encouraged to visit http://www.lc.itb/links/writing.htm and http://owl.english.purdue.edu/. At the http://www.lc.itb/links/writing.htm students can visit several links related to writing and http://owl.english.purdue.edu provides handouts, materials and resources for students and teachers including: general writing concerns, grammar, spelling and punctuation, research and documenting, professional writing, practice exercises and many more. In handling homework, mailing list fisika2000@yahoogroups.com is used so that the class discussion and feedback can be broadened into cyber interaction. An e-learning website was prepared to handle intensive cyber interaction http://shinchan.lc.itb.ac.id (still under construction). With the rapid development of IT, ITB Language Centre in collaboration with the British Council and university of Leeds, organized the fourth national conference on Autonomy: Perspectives from the English Language Classroom, Challenges for English language Teaching Organizations in 2002.
With this big change, physics students should take 2 credit of either academic writing, presentation skills, or reading class, depending on the TOEFL like score, at the preparatory year, 3 credits of technical writing and 3 credits of seminar presentation, total 8 credits. Electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, mathematics, and biology department follow the path of physics department in initiating technical writing class and seminar presentation class. These departments offer 2 credits for technical writing and 2 credits for seminar presentation, so students in these departments should take 6 credits of English during their study.
English at ITB Postgraduate Program
Started from the year of 2000, students taking post graduate program (S2) at ITB should take TOEFL like test at the Language Centre. Those who were scored lower then 475 should take a TOEFL preparation class and should obtain 475 or above at the end of the program. Those who could not get 475 at the end of the program should follow the next similar program. The idea of increasing the TOEFL score and English ability using this kind of program was not successful since so many students could not get 475 or above. The number of the participants is getting bigger and bigger, the Language Centre does not have enough classroom and teachers to handle the classes. Started in 2004, those who were scored lower then 475 should take an English class at the English unit, which is reading and writing and they do not have to get 475 TOEFL score or above instead they will get mark ‘A’, ‘B’, C’ or ‘D’. Unlike S2 students, the S3 students (doctorate program) if scored 474 or lower should follow intensive program at the Language Centre (320 hours). This intensive program is very similar to pre-departure program, concentrating in study skills, reading and writing.
English at School of Business and Management ITB (S1 program)
In the year of 2004 ITB opened a School of Business and Management ITB (S1 program). In this new program English, Critical Reading and Writing, is given for 8 credits in 2 semesters. Critical Reading I (4 credits) is given in the first semester and Critical Reading II (4 credits) is given in the second semester. In the two semesters the students will be taught specific strategies for critical reading, thereby enabling them to analyze thoughtfully the readings in their texts in their other courses. It is assumed that the SBM students should learn to think and read critically and that as they become better readers, they will also become more effective writers. Instruction in reading, writing is also taught, helping the students to understand and manage the composing process – from invention through planning and drafting to revision. Since English is used as the language of instruction in most of the subjects, the following key skills and competencies will be encouraged; critical thinking through analysis and discussion of ideas from reading texts or video; writing skills requiring the organization of ideas and their development in stages of the writing course; cooperative learning through working in pairs and small group discussions; critical reading skills through guidance in relation to specific texts to be read and how they should be read; and basic competence in making use of learning resources such as libraries and the internet.
Conclusion
The changes of English language learning and teaching policy at ITB was very much influenced by other institutions and the use of IT. The long and intent collaboration of the Language Centre with the British Council and university of Leeds has gradually changed the practice of English language learning and teaching toward the better at ITB.
References
Alwasilah, Chaedar (2000). Perspektif Pendidikan BAHASA INGGRIS DI INDONESIA Dalam Konteks Persaingan Global. CV. Andira. Bandung.
Alwasilah, Chaedar (2003). LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND EDUCATION: A PORTRAIT OF CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA. CV. Andira Bandung.
Candy, P C (1991) Self-direction for Lifelong Learning. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, California
Coopper, Robert L. (1989). LANGUAGE PLANNING AND SOCIAL CHANGE. Cambridge University Press.
Entwistle, Noel 1(983). Styles of Learning and Teaching, London : John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Hiemstra, R. (1994). Self-directed learning. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Education (second edition), Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Hudson, T. (1991). A content comprehension approach to reading English for science and technology. TESOL Quarterly, 25/1: 77-104.
Johns, A., & Dudley-Evans, T. 1991. English for Specific Purposes: International in scope, specific in purpose. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 297-314.
Knowles, M S (1975) Self-directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. Cambridge Book Co., New York
Leong, Nee Nee (1999). Using IT in the Teaching and Learning of Writing. Educational Technology 99 Conference, Singapore
Someks, Bridget & Niki Davis (1997). Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge
The status development of English as a subject changes from time to time. In the past English was taught at ITB for only 1 semester with 2 credits. Due to the limited time allocation, only reading comprehension was taught. The writer assumes that most of the universities in Indonesia apply the same policy to the undergraduate non English department. In this paper the writer is going to share the experience of language policy at ITB, this policy was the one described by Cooper (1989) “… refers to deliberate effort to influence the allocation of functions among a community’s languages.” The changing policy from 1 semester (2 credits) reading comprehension to 3 semesters with 8 credits was such an interesting process to be shared. Now the first year students have to take a placement test (TOEFL like is used), and are placed in reading comprehension, presentation skills or academic writing class (2 credits). In the second year or third year they have to take technical writing (3 credits) and seminar presentation skills (3 credits) and 2 semesters with 8 credits (Critical Reading and Writing) for first and second semester of School Business and Management ITB (S1 program).The above language policy change was very much influenced by the use of IT in the teaching and learning of English. The role and the influence of interactive web exercises, mailing list and online learning will be discussed.
Introduction
The role of English language is so important in Indonesian universities, because most of the textbooks, journals, and other sources of learning are written in English. Some universities in Indonesia are aware of the importance and give special attention to the teaching and learning of English; for instance by establishing a language centre, student English forum and giving more credits to English as a subject. However some universities in Indonesia still consider English as a minor subject, especially in the non English departments, similar to other humanities subjects such as religion, ethics ‘pancasila dan kewarganegaraan’, ‘sosiologi industri’ and anthropology. Alwasilah (2000) mentioned eleven characteristics of English in the preparatory year, which is known as ‘MKDU’: ”(a) it has been part of the system for a long time, (b) it is a compulsory subject, (c) it is 2 credits, (d) taught in 1st or 2nd semester, (e) the classes are relatively large and heterogenic, (f) they are taught by junior lecturers who do not have enough experience in teaching, (g) it is not a prestigious subject, (h) there is no inter and intra institution coordination (i) lack of facilities, (j) the material has already been given at high school and (k) there is no placement test or classification according to students’ ability and there is no needs analysis” (Alwasilah, 2000). Considering the importance of English and the need for change, the writer will elaborate the changes in English teaching policy at ITB. It will mostly based on what has been done by the English unit and Language Centre at ITB.
The teaching and learning of English in the 1980s at ITB
English is a compulsory subject for the first year students at ITB. As there are more than 1000 students taking English each year, English has become an important subject. It is important because students are expected to be able to read English texts during their study. So there is an expectation from the institution that the English Unit’s program will bring students up to the level of competence required to read those texts.
English was given for only one semester in all departments which was about 32 hours of instruction. In the late 1980s, the English unit compiled its own teaching materials to cater for the needs of the institution. The texts were selected from various sources ranging from mining to mathematics, followed by reading comprehension questions. Lists of words (related to science and technology) were also given. Essential grammatical items were included in the texts. The assumption was that by reading scientific texts and understanding some grammatical items and vocabulary the students would be able to cope with the texts related to their study. The compilation was influenced by the beliefs that;
- comprehension of written material is inescapably intertwined with vocabulary.
- students must learn the rules of formal syntax in order to become fluent reader.
- students may lack knowledge of English grammar.
- students encounter too much unfamiliar vocabulary to grasp the overall concept conveyed in the sentence.
- students are challenged when reading idiomatic expressions and unfamiliar grammatical constructions.
The number of students was around 80 to 100 from various departments in one class. Explanation about the reading texts followed by the vocabulary, grammar explanation and reading comprehension questions was a standard delivery. This teaching methodology was very similar to how they were taught in high schools and they were bored in class. Alwasilah (2000) pointed out the causes of the failure of such programs; “...the texts are not challenging for students”, and “…there is no clear benefit of reading the texts provided by the lecturer” (Alwasilah, 2000). Some of the students made use of their senior’s English textbook, where the exercises have been done so they were not really paying attention to the lesson. Some of them even did other work such as calculus, mathematics or other subjects. Moreover the heterogenic English ability of the class made it really difficult to handle. Some students were really advanced compared to others. They had usually have memorized a great deal of English vocabulary words and acquired a certain reading level before entering ITB due to the competitive entrance exams. They came to class just for the sake a ticket to sit in the final examination and obtain the final grade, which required only 80% attendance,
In the late 1980s with the growing emphasis on ESP, the departments at ITB demanded different English teaching materials for ITB students. The English unit tried to respond to this demand by selecting reading materials from their particular fields of study. The exercises using specialized vocabulary were constructed by the English teachers. As a result several handbooks for students from various departments were compiled. It was assumed that by teaching reading in a particular content area students would understand English texts in their field of study and would be motivated to study English because they would be working with materials on topics with which they were already familiar. The process of compiling, reviewing, and revising the materials took longer time than expected. There was no chance for teachers to review each other’s materials as they were in different specialized areas and because of lack of time. This dilemma was to the one described by Johns (1991) :“ … teachers find themselves in a situation where they are expected to produce a course that exactly matches the needs of a group of learners, but are expected to do so with no, or very limited, preparation time" (Johns, 1991, p. 91). There was a particularly acute problem at this stage concerning the preparation of materials for the students of certain departments whose number of students was small. The department of astronomy, for example, had a very small number of students. Therefore, since it was not feasible to cater for these students, they were put together with the students from other departments. The handbook was therefore a compilation of texts of 2 or more fields of study.
During the instruction the students felt at ease at the beginning because of their familiarity with the material. Later on they got bored as they could understand the material very easily because of their background knowledge. This phenomenon is described by Hudson (1991:86) as “technical content schema,” a term defined as knowledge of content from subjects that students have already mastered. Technical content schema of science seems to play a greater role in students’ comprehension of scientific texts than their language background. Furthermore, the teachers had the psychological burden of having to learn a lot more about a certain field of study. Consequently they had to consult subject teachers, particularly for some very specialized terms. The coordinator of the English program had difficulty finding replacements for teachers who were absent for one reason or another because each teacher specialized in only one particular field of study. There were also problems with both mid-term tests and the final tests. Each teacher had to make two sets of tests during the semester. The ability to construct a test varied among the teachers. The levels of difficulty of the tests, therefore, varied too. As a result we could not make a standardization of test scores, because an A in one department was not necessarily equal to an A in other departments. Besides, the students’ performance on the test might be explained their background knowledge, not by their competence in English. So there was a question whether we were testing the students’ mastery of the content or that of the language.
The role of ITB Language Centre in the 1980s
The Language Centre was established under the Vice Rector I (Vice Rector of Academic Affair) in the response to the demand of pre-departure training courses for ITB young lecturers before continuing their studies in English speaking countries. With the help of the British Council, the centre was developed. The most significant contribution to the changes in teaching methods, materials and English language teaching in general, was the involvement of a teacher specialist from the British Council. The teacher specialist was deeply involved in developing the teaching materials, methodology and resource centre for Self Directed Learning. Weekly workshops on materials developments, how to compiled materials from different sources to meet the students’ need and the target language were conducted, involving those who were teaching the undergraduate program. The communicative approach and other teaching methods were introduced to the teachers. New teaching activities such as pair work, group work, and discussion were introduced and slowly changed the teachers’ view of teaching. Other important events were the academic link with Leeds University and Universitas Gajah Mada, started in 1991 to 1997. Eighteen language teaching specialists from these two institutions visited Leeds through the link and nine visits to Indonesia were made by Leeds staff. Joint research was carried out, and several joint presentations were made at international conferences. Teaching materials for students and reference materials for teachers were developed through these links.
The teaching and learning of English in the 1990s at ITB
One outcome of the academic link with UGM-Leeds has resulted in the changing of teaching materials used in the undergraduate program. Some research in material development was done by giving samples of skill-based teaching materials and the activities to students. The results showed that the students liked the materials and so the teachers were challenged to do something different. The idea of changing the teaching material was also inspired by two seminars which were held by ITB in collaboration with the British Council Jakarta and University of Leeds; in 1995: Teaching English to University Undergraduates in the Indonesian Context: Issues and Developments, and in 1997 English in High Schools and Universities in Indonesia; Bridging the Gap.
In preparing the materials, books related to reading and reading skills in which the exercises were provided were used as models. As the workbook was prepared by the teachers as a team, each teacher prepared only one chapter to two chapters instead of one whole workbook. Later the teachers reviewed into each other’s material and made necessary changes. The aim of preparing the new workbook was to give the students the opportunity to learn other skills apart from knowing how to answer comprehension questions in their own field. In the new workbook the students are trained how to make predictions, to skim and scan a text, to find main ideas in paragraphs, etc. The compilation was influenced by the beliefs that;
- reading skills such as making predictions before reading, skimming, scanning, getting the main ideas, note taking are very important aspects in reading.
- the reading skills mastered by the students in Indonesian language should be utilized.
- outside the English classroom different reading purposes are inherent students encounter a variety of situations.
During the instruction the teachers are challenged to be creative and the students have opportunities to apply the reading skills which they are acquiring when reading their textbooks. The teachers have to prepare supplementary materials for exercises to be done spontaneously in class. These supplementary materials can also be used for quizzes, and assignments. In addition, the students are asked to submit a text in their own field with their notes on it such as its main ideas, etc. The students are given the skills to be applied when reading texts in their own field. The teachers consult each other on the content of the book. They are able to help each other by taking each other’s class in case one of them is absent for some reasons. The efficiency in teaching is also higher because one teacher can teach in more than one class.
The role of the ITB Language Centre in the 1990s
In the early 1990s the Language Centre not only ran pre-departure courses but also courses for the public. In running the pre-departure courses, which was very intensive, (from 08.00 to 16.30 over the period of three months) the courses were designed by the teacher specialist from the British Council together with the ITB English teachers. There were BELT (Basic English Language Training), and EAP 1 (English for Academic Purposes). As mentioned earlier, the teacher specialist gave training on various methods of teaching and material development to cater the students’ need. The teacher specialist was also involved in the development of the resource centre, and guided the design of the learning activities.
The resource centre is equipped with books, magazines, news papers cassettes, videos and other home made-materials designed for facilitating self–directed learning. At the beginning of Self Directed Learning sessions of the pre-departure program, a workshop with the participants is always conducted to give an overview of SDL, followed by a series of workshops to find out about individual needs, choice of individual learning techniques, setting goals, specifying objectives, use of learning contracts and other matters related to SDL. Self-directed study involves various activities and resources, such as self-guided reading, participation in study groups, internships, and reflective writing activities. It is expected that individual learners can become empowered to take more responsibility for various decisions associated with the learning endeavor. (Hiemstra, R. 1994). Along with the increasing number of courses offered for the public, the Language Centre is also a pre-departure training centre for BAPPENAS and DIKTI.
By the end of 1994, the formal support from the British Council ended. The Language Centre now has to support its own activities without the help of a teacher specialist. However; other types of collaboration with the British Council continues up to now. Testing and Evaluation in the Context of Undergraduate English Language Teaching in Indonesia, the third national conference in collaboration with the British Council and university of Leeds was held in February 2000.
The teaching and learning of English and the role of Language Centre in 2000 up to the present at ITB
After the seminar on Testing and Evaluation in the Context of Undergraduate English Language Teaching in Indonesia, ITB decided to change the ‘English class’ to ‘academic writing class’, ‘presentation skills class’, and ‘reading class’. New students are tested using TOEFL like test, conducted by the Language Centre and students with the score of 500 or above have to take the academic writing class (2 credits), 475 to 499 presentation skills class (2 credits), and 474 or below reading class (2 credits). The academic writing handout has been prepared at the Language Centre and focuses on how to write. It starts with how to write a topic sentence; then various types of paragraph; and ends with essay writing. Similar to the academic writing handout, the presentation skills handout has also been prepared at the Language Centre. Even at the beginning some of the classes were conducted at the Language Centre which has the facilities. The presentation skills class requires a video, to show a model of a presentation, and a video recorder to record students’ presentations. The maximum number of students in this class is twenty. The writing class requires OHP with a maximum of twenty five students in a class. The number of students in a reading class is approximately 40 – 50.
The blooming of internet gives special color to the teaching and learning of English at ITB. Through www.lc.itb.ac.id students are able to search for information related to their particular needs in learning English; do online grammar, vocabulary, writing, reading exercises and many more. With the advance of Information Technology (IT), teaching and learning can effectively change the way students take advantage of IT to gain new and wider resources of information. (Leong 1999) Using the World Wide Web (www), students can search through millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic materials (e.g., newspapers, magazines, book excerpts) exactly tailored to their own interests. For example in conversation class at the Language Centre, a teacher can ask the students to search their favorite singers, or film stars using search engine (www.google.com) in the resource centre, study the files and share the information orally with the rest of the class. Another common use of a search engine in the internet is in teaching reading where students can find their own text and discuss the text with the teacher or other in the class. www.lc.itb.ac.id is not only for students who are studying at the Language Centre but also for ITB students who are taking English class at the English unit.
The big change
The big change in the English teaching and learning at ITB was initiated by the physics department. The physics department proposed an idea of running a technical writing class (3 credits) and seminar presentation (3 credits) to the English unit. These two new subjects are compulsory subjects in the department and the students must take these subjects in the third or fourth year. The syllabus and handout for both were compiled by English teacher and subject teacher from the department of physics. The classes are also handled by English teacher and subject teacher. The English teacher teaches the writing skills or presentation skills and the subject teacher helps the students having problems with technical terms, having difficulties in generating ideas for writing or presentation, or having problem in developing technical concepts. Due to the limited sources for technical writing, students are encouraged to visit http://www.lc.itb/links/writing.htm and http://owl.english.purdue.edu/. At the http://www.lc.itb/links/writing.htm students can visit several links related to writing and http://owl.english.purdue.edu provides handouts, materials and resources for students and teachers including: general writing concerns, grammar, spelling and punctuation, research and documenting, professional writing, practice exercises and many more. In handling homework, mailing list fisika2000@yahoogroups.com is used so that the class discussion and feedback can be broadened into cyber interaction. An e-learning website was prepared to handle intensive cyber interaction http://shinchan.lc.itb.ac.id (still under construction). With the rapid development of IT, ITB Language Centre in collaboration with the British Council and university of Leeds, organized the fourth national conference on Autonomy: Perspectives from the English Language Classroom, Challenges for English language Teaching Organizations in 2002.
With this big change, physics students should take 2 credit of either academic writing, presentation skills, or reading class, depending on the TOEFL like score, at the preparatory year, 3 credits of technical writing and 3 credits of seminar presentation, total 8 credits. Electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, mathematics, and biology department follow the path of physics department in initiating technical writing class and seminar presentation class. These departments offer 2 credits for technical writing and 2 credits for seminar presentation, so students in these departments should take 6 credits of English during their study.
English at ITB Postgraduate Program
Started from the year of 2000, students taking post graduate program (S2) at ITB should take TOEFL like test at the Language Centre. Those who were scored lower then 475 should take a TOEFL preparation class and should obtain 475 or above at the end of the program. Those who could not get 475 at the end of the program should follow the next similar program. The idea of increasing the TOEFL score and English ability using this kind of program was not successful since so many students could not get 475 or above. The number of the participants is getting bigger and bigger, the Language Centre does not have enough classroom and teachers to handle the classes. Started in 2004, those who were scored lower then 475 should take an English class at the English unit, which is reading and writing and they do not have to get 475 TOEFL score or above instead they will get mark ‘A’, ‘B’, C’ or ‘D’. Unlike S2 students, the S3 students (doctorate program) if scored 474 or lower should follow intensive program at the Language Centre (320 hours). This intensive program is very similar to pre-departure program, concentrating in study skills, reading and writing.
English at School of Business and Management ITB (S1 program)
In the year of 2004 ITB opened a School of Business and Management ITB (S1 program). In this new program English, Critical Reading and Writing, is given for 8 credits in 2 semesters. Critical Reading I (4 credits) is given in the first semester and Critical Reading II (4 credits) is given in the second semester. In the two semesters the students will be taught specific strategies for critical reading, thereby enabling them to analyze thoughtfully the readings in their texts in their other courses. It is assumed that the SBM students should learn to think and read critically and that as they become better readers, they will also become more effective writers. Instruction in reading, writing is also taught, helping the students to understand and manage the composing process – from invention through planning and drafting to revision. Since English is used as the language of instruction in most of the subjects, the following key skills and competencies will be encouraged; critical thinking through analysis and discussion of ideas from reading texts or video; writing skills requiring the organization of ideas and their development in stages of the writing course; cooperative learning through working in pairs and small group discussions; critical reading skills through guidance in relation to specific texts to be read and how they should be read; and basic competence in making use of learning resources such as libraries and the internet.
Conclusion
The changes of English language learning and teaching policy at ITB was very much influenced by other institutions and the use of IT. The long and intent collaboration of the Language Centre with the British Council and university of Leeds has gradually changed the practice of English language learning and teaching toward the better at ITB.
References
Alwasilah, Chaedar (2000). Perspektif Pendidikan BAHASA INGGRIS DI INDONESIA Dalam Konteks Persaingan Global. CV. Andira. Bandung.
Alwasilah, Chaedar (2003). LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND EDUCATION: A PORTRAIT OF CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA. CV. Andira Bandung.
Candy, P C (1991) Self-direction for Lifelong Learning. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, California
Coopper, Robert L. (1989). LANGUAGE PLANNING AND SOCIAL CHANGE. Cambridge University Press.
Entwistle, Noel 1(983). Styles of Learning and Teaching, London : John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Hiemstra, R. (1994). Self-directed learning. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Education (second edition), Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Hudson, T. (1991). A content comprehension approach to reading English for science and technology. TESOL Quarterly, 25/1: 77-104.
Johns, A., & Dudley-Evans, T. 1991. English for Specific Purposes: International in scope, specific in purpose. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 297-314.
Knowles, M S (1975) Self-directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. Cambridge Book Co., New York
Leong, Nee Nee (1999). Using IT in the Teaching and Learning of Writing. Educational Technology 99 Conference, Singapore
Someks, Bridget & Niki Davis (1997). Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge
Tips For Successful Language Learning
Tip 1: Be realistic.
Be patient. Learning to speak a second language can be challenging and it will take time.
Study or use English regularly and often. 20-30 minutes every day is better than 3 hours all at once in one day.
Set goals for yourself. Create a checklist of the things you want to accomplish in a week, a month, or a year.
Here are some examples of goals:
- "I will learn 5 new words a day."
- "I will be able to speak about the past and future by the end of this month."
- "I will be able to stand up and give a presentation in English with confidence by the end of July."
Tip 2: Do things that help you remember what you've learned
Keep a journal of the new words, expressions, and rules you learn. Write a sentence using each one.
Create a deck of flashcards to practice your new words and expressions.
Read your lists of new vocabulary or expressions before going to sleep at night. Tape the lists to the bathroom mirror.
Label your furniture in English.
Tip 3: Focus on meaning.
Try not to translate word for word.
When you read something in English, first try to get the general meaning; don't worry about understanding every word. Then go back and focus on specifics.
When you're talking with someone in English or watching TV or a movie in English, don't worry if you don't understand every word. Try to focus on the overall meaning.
If you've got to write something in English, start by writing as much as you can without making corrections. Focus on the main ideas first and write these down. Then go back and make changes.
Tip 4: Take risks.
Just talk. Don't worry about getting everything right. Try new words, expressions, and structures, even when you're not exactly sure of how to use them.
Ask for help. Sometimes you just won't understand something. If someone is talking too fast, ask him/her to slow down. If you didn't understand something, ask the person to repeat it, and explain it, if necessary. Use expressions like:
- "Could you repeat that, please?"
- "Could you say that again, please?"
- "English isn’t my first language. Could you speak a little more slowly, please?"
Tip 5: Make English a part of your life.
Watch English language TV or movies with English subtitles; listen to music in English.
Spend 15-20 minutes a day reading things you enjoy in English. Find Web sites, magazines, newspapers, or literature. You can look for material that is written for native speakers of English or for learners of English. Read advice columns (for example, Dear Abby and Ann Landers); these are great because they use correct and current English and provide a window to culture.
Get a pen pal.
Participate in online chat rooms or message boards where you have to use English.
Get involved in activities in your city that get you to use English, perhaps a movie or book club. Go to an English-speaking country's consulate in your city and see if they offer or can direct you to places that offer group activities.
Teach a skill to native English speakers. Plenty of native speakers would love to learn foreign cooking, for example. You would practice English and they would learn cooking.
Make friends with people who are speakers of English. If you are speakers of the same first language, make a rule that perhaps for an hour three times a week, you will only speak in English. Pick topics that interest you to help you focus your conversations.
Do your day-to-day tasks in English--write grocery lists, make notes to yourself, etc.
Get a roommate that you have to use English with.
Do volunteer work that requires you to speak English--in schools, or at charitable organizations, for example.
Find out about the culture and customs of people in English-speaking countries.
Tip 6: Make mistakes work for you.
You are going to make mistakes, but how can you learn from these?
Keep a list of errors that you make repeatedly.
Do homework together with someone else who is learning English. Correct each other's work.
Make a list of questions about things that you don't understand in English. Ask a teacher or a friend to try to answer your questions.
Be patient. Learning to speak a second language can be challenging and it will take time.
Study or use English regularly and often. 20-30 minutes every day is better than 3 hours all at once in one day.
Set goals for yourself. Create a checklist of the things you want to accomplish in a week, a month, or a year.
Here are some examples of goals:
- "I will learn 5 new words a day."
- "I will be able to speak about the past and future by the end of this month."
- "I will be able to stand up and give a presentation in English with confidence by the end of July."
Tip 2: Do things that help you remember what you've learned
Keep a journal of the new words, expressions, and rules you learn. Write a sentence using each one.
Create a deck of flashcards to practice your new words and expressions.
Read your lists of new vocabulary or expressions before going to sleep at night. Tape the lists to the bathroom mirror.
Label your furniture in English.
Tip 3: Focus on meaning.
Try not to translate word for word.
When you read something in English, first try to get the general meaning; don't worry about understanding every word. Then go back and focus on specifics.
When you're talking with someone in English or watching TV or a movie in English, don't worry if you don't understand every word. Try to focus on the overall meaning.
If you've got to write something in English, start by writing as much as you can without making corrections. Focus on the main ideas first and write these down. Then go back and make changes.
Tip 4: Take risks.
Just talk. Don't worry about getting everything right. Try new words, expressions, and structures, even when you're not exactly sure of how to use them.
Ask for help. Sometimes you just won't understand something. If someone is talking too fast, ask him/her to slow down. If you didn't understand something, ask the person to repeat it, and explain it, if necessary. Use expressions like:
- "Could you repeat that, please?"
- "Could you say that again, please?"
- "English isn’t my first language. Could you speak a little more slowly, please?"
Tip 5: Make English a part of your life.
Watch English language TV or movies with English subtitles; listen to music in English.
Spend 15-20 minutes a day reading things you enjoy in English. Find Web sites, magazines, newspapers, or literature. You can look for material that is written for native speakers of English or for learners of English. Read advice columns (for example, Dear Abby and Ann Landers); these are great because they use correct and current English and provide a window to culture.
Get a pen pal.
Participate in online chat rooms or message boards where you have to use English.
Get involved in activities in your city that get you to use English, perhaps a movie or book club. Go to an English-speaking country's consulate in your city and see if they offer or can direct you to places that offer group activities.
Teach a skill to native English speakers. Plenty of native speakers would love to learn foreign cooking, for example. You would practice English and they would learn cooking.
Make friends with people who are speakers of English. If you are speakers of the same first language, make a rule that perhaps for an hour three times a week, you will only speak in English. Pick topics that interest you to help you focus your conversations.
Do your day-to-day tasks in English--write grocery lists, make notes to yourself, etc.
Get a roommate that you have to use English with.
Do volunteer work that requires you to speak English--in schools, or at charitable organizations, for example.
Find out about the culture and customs of people in English-speaking countries.
Tip 6: Make mistakes work for you.
You are going to make mistakes, but how can you learn from these?
Keep a list of errors that you make repeatedly.
Do homework together with someone else who is learning English. Correct each other's work.
Make a list of questions about things that you don't understand in English. Ask a teacher or a friend to try to answer your questions.
Wednesday, May 18, 2005
Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP), English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Curriculum and Material Developmen
Presented at ITENAS
March 16 – 17, 2004
Based on insights gained from developing the curriculum for Language Preparation for Employment (Retooling) and Pre-departure Program at UPT Pusat Bahasa and a review of the literature on ESP, this paper is intended to offer theoretical support for ESL instructors developing ESP/EAP curricula for ESL contexts.
Background Information and Statement of Purpose
In late 1990, I was asked to develop a curriculum for a twelve-week course for a select group of lecturers and government employee, and for a three-week course for a select group of S1 graduates who are still unemployed. The course was held at UPT Bahasa ITB and was funded by ‘ BAPPENAS or DIKTI. The curriculum consisted of two distinct phases: language delivery and academic / employment awareness. Although the academic awareness phase was an integral component of the program, the focus of this paper is on insights gained from the language-delivery phase.
Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) identify five key roles for the ESP practitioner:
• teacher
• course designer and materials provider
• collaborator
• researcher
• evaluator.
It is the role of ESP/EAP practitioner as course designer and materials provider that this paper addresses. The premise of this paper is based on David Nunan's observations about the teacher as a curriculum developer.
It seems fairly obvious that if teachers are to be the ones responsible for developing the curriculum, they need the time, the skills and the support to do so. Support may include curriculum models and guidelines • and may include support from individuals acting in a curriculum advisory position. The provision of such support cannot be removed and must not be seen in isolation, from the curriculum (Nunan, 1987, p. 75).
Nunan recognized that issues of time, skills and support are key for teachers faced with the very real task of developing curricula. The intent of this paper is to provide the ESL instructor as ESP/EAP course designer and materials provider with theoretical support. This paper begins with a discussion of the origins of ESP. Some key notions about ESP are then addressed:
• absolute and variable characteristics
• types of ESP
• characteristics of ESP courses
Key issues in ESP curriculum design are suggested: a) abilities required for successful communication in occupational/academic settings; b)content language acquisition versus general language acquisition; c) heterogeneous versus homogenous learner group; and d) materials development.
The Origins of ESP
Certainly, a great deal about the origins of ESP could be written. Notably, there are three reasons common to the emergence of all ESP: the demands of a Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics, and focus on the learner (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) note that two key historical periods breathed life into ESP. First, the end of the Second World War brought with it an " ... age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale for various reasons, most notably the economic power of the United States in the post-war world, the role [of international language] fell to English" (p. 6). Second, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the oil-rich countries. The language of this knowledge became English.
The general effect of all this development was to exert pressure on the language teaching profession to deliver the required goods. Whereas English had previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.7).
The second key reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP was a revolution in linguistics. Whereas traditional linguists set out to describe the features of language, revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which language is used in real communication. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that spoken and written English vary. In other words, given the particular context in which English is used, the variant of English will change. This idea was taken one step farther. If language in different situations varies, then tailoring language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence, in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for Science and Technology (EST). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identify Ewer and Latorre, Swales, Selinker and Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers.
The final reason Hutchinson and Waters (1987) cite as having influenced the emergence of ESP has less to do with linguistics and everything to do psychology. Rather than simply focus on the method of language delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners were seen to employ different learning strategies, use different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and be motivated by different needs and interests. Therefore, focus on the learners' needs became equally paramount as the methods employed to disseminate linguistic knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet these individual needs was a natural extension of this thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is learner-centered or learning-centered.
Key Notions About ESP
In this discussion, four key notions will be discussed. They are as follows: a) the distinctions between the absolute and variable characteristics of ESP, b) types of ESP, c) characteristics of ESP courses, and d) the meaning of the word 'special' in ESP.
Absolute and Variable Characteristics of ESP
Ten years later, theorists Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) modified Strevens' original definition of ESP to form their own. Let us begin with Strevens. He defined ESP by identifying its absolute and variable characteristics. Strevens' (1988) definition makes a distinction between four absolute and two variable characteristics:
I. Absolute characteristics:
ESP consists of English language teaching which is:
designed to meet specified needs of the learner;
related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and activities;
centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, etc., and analysis of this discourse;
in contrast with General English.
II. Variable characteristics:
ESP may be, but is not necessarily:
restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only);
not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology (pp.1-2).
Anthony (1997) notes that there has been considerable recent debate about what ESP means despite the fact that it is an approach which has been widely used over the last three decades. At a 1997 Japan Conference on ESP, Dudley-Evans offered a modified definition. The revised definition he and St. John postulate is as follows:
I. Absolute Characteristics
ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learner;
ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves;
ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities.
II. Variable Characteristics
ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;
ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English;
ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level;
ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students;
Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners (1998, pp. 4-5).
Dudley-Evans and St. John have removed the absolute characteristic that 'ESP is in contrast with General English' and added more variable characteristics. They assert that ESP is not necessarily related to a specific discipline. Furthermore, ESP is likely to be used with adult learners although it could be used with young adults in a secondary school setting.
As for a broader definition of ESP, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) theorize, "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for learning" (p. 19). Anthony (1997) notes that, it is not clear where ESP courses end and general English courses begin; numerous non-specialist ESL instructors use an ESP approach in that their syllabi are based on analysis of learner needs and their own personal specialist knowledge of using English for real communication.
Types of ESP
David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP:
• English as a restricted language
• English for Academic and Occupational Purposes
• English with specific topics.
The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a restricted language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between restricted language and language with this statement:
... the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as 'special', in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situational, as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a restricted 'language' would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situation, or in contexts outside the vocational environment (pp. 4-5).
The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for Academic and Occupational Purposes. In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three branches: a) English for Science and Technology (EST), b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for Technicians' whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP: " People can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a job" (p. 16). Perhaps this explains Carter's rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under the same type of ESP. It appears that Carter is implying that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP are one in the same: employment. However, despite the end purpose being identical, the means taken to achieve the end is very different indeed. I contend that EAP and EOP are different in terms of focus on Cummins' (1979) notions of cognitive academic proficiency versus basic interpersonal skills. This is examined in further detail below.
The third and final type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English with specific topics. Carter notes that it is only here where emphasis shifts from purpose to topic. This type of ESP is uniquely concerned with anticipated future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign institutions. However, I argue that this is not a separate type of ESP. Rather it is an integral component of ESP courses or programs which focus on situational language. This situational language has been determined based on the interpretation of results from needs analysis of authentic language used in target workplace settings.
Characteristics of ESP Courses
The characteristics of ESP courses identified by Carter (1983) are discussed here. He states that there are three features common to ESP courses: a) authentic material, b) purpose-related orientation, and c) self-direction.
If we revisit Dudley-Evans' (1997) claim that ESP should be offered at an intermediate or advanced level, use of authentic learning materials is entirely feasible. Closer examination of ESP materials will follow; suffice it to say at this juncture that use of authentic content materials, modified or unmodified in form, are indeed a feature of ESP/EAP, particularly in self-directed study and research tasks. For Language Preparation for Pre-departure Training, a large component of the student evaluation was based on an independent study assignment in which the learners were required to investigate and present an area of interest. The students were encouraged to conduct research using a variety of different resources, including the Internet.
Finally, self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses in that the " ... point of including self-direction ... is that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users" (Carter, 1983, p. 134). In order for self-direction to occur, the learners must have a certain degree of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. Carter (1983) also adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the learners how to learn by teaching them about learning strategies. Is it necessary, though, to teach high-ability learners such as those enrolled in the health science program about learning strategies? I argue that it is not. Rather, what is essential for these learners is learning how to access information in a new culture.
Key Issues in ESP Curriculum Design
In this section, key issues in ESP curriculum design for ESL contexts are examined. The issues explored here are a product of my professional experience developing the curriculum for Language Preparation for Pre-departure Training and ‘Retooling Program’. This experience has been supported with a review of the literature on ESP.
Abilities Required for Successful Communication in Academic/Occupational Settings
Cummins (1979) theorized a dichotomy between basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). The former refers to the language skills used in the everyday informal language used with friends, family and co-workers. The latter refers to a language proficiency required to make sense of and use academic language. Situations in which individuals use BICS are characterized by contexts that provide relatively easy access to meaning. However, CALP use occurs in contexts that offer fewer contextual clues.
After having developed and taught the curriculum for Pre-departure Training and ‘Retooling Program’, I have reached the conclusion that there are three abilities necessary for successful communication in a professional target setting. I have added a third skill or ability to Cummins' theory in order to complete the ESP picture.
The first ability required in order to successfully communicate in an occupational/academic setting is the ability to use the particular jargon characteristic of that specific occupational context. The second is the ability to use a more generalized set of academic skills, such as conducting research and responding to memoranda. The third is the ability to use the language of everyday informal talk to communicate effectively, regardless of occupational context. Examples of this include chatting over coffee with a colleague or responding to an informal email message.
The task for the ESP developer is to ensure that all three of these abilities are integrated into and integrated in the curriculum. This is a difficult task due to the incredible amount of research required. Close collaboration between content experts and the curriculum developer was not possible during the development stages for the curriculum. In retrospect, the experience and knowledge of health science faculty would have lessened the workload in this area tremendously. Fortunately, there does exist a wealth of information on academic and general language skills. The trick involved in the interweaving process is to develop a model that best integrates the restricted repertoire with the academic and general for the learners in question.
In the case of Language Preparation for Pre-departure Training and ‘Retooling Program’, there were so many possible potential future occupational settings to research and I had to cope with limited development time. I simply opted to identify academic skills that were transferable to most science occupational settings. This required an inventory of all possible science occupations, identification of the past occupational experiences of the learners in the pilot program, and identification of academic language skills. All of this information was then cross-referenced with the general language objectives for the identified group of learners.
It is my opinion that because ESP requires comprehensive needs analysis and because the learning-centred curriculum is not static, it is impossible to expect that the developer be in a position to identify the perfect balance of the abilities noted above for any particular group of learners. In reality, a large part of this responsibility is that of the instructors; it is the instructors who are in the best position to identify changing learner needs and who are in the best position to ensure that all students receive a balanced diet of language.
Content Language Acquisition Versus General Language Acquisition
When I first received the proposal for the Pre-departure Training and ‘Retooling Program’, the ratio of content to language instruction had already been identified: 2 hours of content lecture for every 23 hours of language/content instruction. Given this starting point, one of the central questions that needed to be answered was how much time would be devoted to vocabulary and content knowledge acquisition, as opposed to the time spent developing general and academic language skills.
Although a tentative balance was drafted prior to classroom delivery, the balance shifted on a daily basis. In the end, it was determined by both instructors that more time need be allotted for pure content and more time need be created for team-taught activities. The final weekly breakdown of 25 hours consisted of the following:
o 8 hours of Integrated Language Learning
o 6 hours of Self-Directed Learning (team teach with content instructor)
o 4 hours of Listening
o 3 hours of Speaking and Seminar presentation (team teach with content instructor)
o 2 hours of Tutorial (team teach with content instructor)
o 2 hours of Applied Computer Skills
The first thing that is apparent from this breakdown, is that time devoted to developing general language and academic skills far outweighs the time devoted to the acquisition of content knowledge. However, it was recommended that the content instructor be present for a considerable more amount of time; it was observed that there was such an overlap between content knowledge, academic proficiency, and general language that we could better interweave many of the activities as a team.
The learners indicated that they desired more opportunity to interact with the content instructor, in addition to attending the old-style lecture format. Indeed, both instructors noted that the students were highly motivated to attend the content lectures and yet additional support from the ESL instructor was required because, in order to meet the learners' needs, we could not teach the restricted repertoire in isolation. What is more, it was highly unreasonable to assume that the content instructor would take on the role of ESL instructor.
Finally, it was observed that the majority of the students with post-secondary training possessed a basic knowledge of their own subjects. Consequently, we determined that less time would be devoted to learning terminology in order to follow the content lectures. Most of the students could already recognize meaning, but not produce it. It was determined that more time should be allotted for work on pronunciation and learning the spelling of science terminology. Moreover, much more time would be spent on communication for the workplace; in this way, they students would be afforded ample opportunity to integrate and practice the restricted repertoire acquired in content lectures and the everyday language acquired in the language classes.
Heterogeneous Learner Group Versus Homogeneous Learner Group
There are a number of variables which characterize a heterogeneous learner group. I argue that variations in language level, prior education and work experience can be accommodated only to a certain extent. Minimum entrance standards must be established in the areas of language level, motivation, and prior education and experience. Most importantly, these standards must be strictly enforced at the time of placement.
The project only registered the students who passed the TOEFL score of 475 or higher. The result was that there were some genuinely intermediate students mixed in with a majority of high intermediate, and a few advanced students.
Based on observations of a four-week English for Business course, Yogman and Kaylani (1996) conclude that there appears to be a minimum proficiency level that is required for students to participate in predominately content-related activities. This supports my finding that those students who were struggling to catch up with general language proficiency simply found the content activities to be overwhelming.
Materials Development
Do ESP textbooks really exist? This is central question Johns (1990) addresses. One of the core dilemmas he presents is that "ESP teachers find themselves in a situation where they are expected to produce a course that exactly matches the needs of a group of learners, but are expected to do so with no, or very limited, preparation time" (Johns, 1990, p. 91).
In the real world, many ESL instructors/ESP developers are not provided with ample time for needs analysis, materials research and materials development. There are many texts which claim to meet the needs of ESP courses. Johns (1990) comments that no one ESP text can live up to its name. He suggests that the only real solution is that a resource bank of pooled materials be made available to all ESP instructors (Johns, 1990). The only difference between this resource bank and the one that is available in every educational setting -- teachers' filing cabinets -- is that this one is to include cross-indexed doable, workable content-based (amongst other) resources.
It is my experience that this suggestion is not doable. If teachers are so pressed for time, will they have the time to submit and cross-index resources? Rather, I believe that there is value in all texts - some more than others. Familiarizing oneself with useful instructional materials is part of growing as a teacher, regardless of the nature of purpose for learning. Given that ESP is an approach and not a subject to be taught, curricular materials will unavoidably be pieced together, some borrowed and others designed specially. Resources will include authentic materials, ESL materials, ESP materials, and teacher-generated materials.
Note that an excellent point of departure for novice ESP curriculum developers is with lists of ESL publishers which have been made publicly available on-line. Browsing publishers' sites takes a few minutes, review copies can be requested immediately and copies can be sent express.
Concluding Remarks
This paper has discussed the origins of ESP, addressed key notions about ESP and examined issues in ESP curriculum design. The content of the paper was determined by a need identified based on my professional experience as an ESL instructor designing and delivering the program - Language Preparation for Pre-departure Training and Retooling Program. These issues, where possible, have been supported by current and pertinent academic literature. It is my sincerest hope that these observations will lend insight into the challenges facing the ESL instructor acting as ESP curriculum developer.
Selected References
• Anderson, R., & Ausubel, D. (Eds.). (1965). Readings in the Psychology of Cognition. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
• Anthony, L. (1997). ESP: What does it mean? ON CUE. http://interserver.miyazaki-med.ac.jp/~cue/pc/anthony.htm Retreived April 6, 2000, from the World Wide Web.
• Betts, G. (1985). Autonomous Learner Model for the gifted and talented. Greeley, CO: Autonomous Learning Publications and Specialists. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 268 708)
• Carver, D. (1983). Some propositions about ESP. The ESP Journal, 2, 131-137.
• Crandall, J. (Ed.). (1987). ESL through content-area instruction: Mathematics, science, social studies. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Regents.
• Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19, 121-129.
• Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. (1998). Developments in ESP: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Echevarria, J., & Graves, A. (1998). Sheltered content instruction: Teaching English-language learners with diverse abilities. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
• Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.
• Huang, S., & Shanmao, C. (1996). Self-efficacy of English as a second language learner: An example of four learners. Bloomington, IN: Language Education Department, School of Education, Indiana University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 396 536)
• Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Johns, A., & Dudley-Evans, T. (1991). English for Specific Purposes: International in scope, specific in purpose. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 297-314.
• Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1975). Learning together and alone: Cooperation, competition and individualization. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Johnson, R. (Ed.). (1989). The second language curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Jones, G. (1990). ESP textbooks: Do they really exist? English for Specific Purposes, 9, 89-93.
• Lomperis, A. (1998). Best practices in EOP/EPP: Steps in providing a program. http://my.voyager.net/azure/programI.html Retreived May 8, 2001, from the World Wide Web.
• Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
• Mackay, R., & Mountford, A. (Eds.). (1978). English for Specific Purposes: A case study approach. London: Longman.
• Mackay, R., & Palmer, J. (Eds.). (1981). Languages for Specific Purposes: Program design and evaluation. London: Newbury House.
• McDonough, J. (1984). ESP in perspective: A practical guide. London: Collins ELT.
• Nunan, D. (1987). The teacher as curriculum developer: An investigation of curriculum processes within the Adult Migrant Education Program. South Australia: National Curriculum Resource Centre.
• Nunan, D. (Ed.). (1992). Collaborative language learning and teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Perren, G. (1974). Forward in Teaching languages to adults for special purposes. CILT Reports and Papers, 11, London: CILT.
• Rogers, C. (1983). Freedom to learn for the 80's. Columbus, OH: Charles Merrill.
• Sagliano, M., Stewart, T., & Sagliano, J. (1998). Professional training to develop content-based instruction in higher education. TESL Canada Journal, 16, 36-51.
• Selinker, L., Tarone, E., & Hanzeli, V. (Eds.). (1981). English for Academic and Technical Purposes: Studies in honor of Louis Trimble. London: Newbury House.
• Strevens, P. (1988). ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State of the Art (pp. 1-13). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Centre.
• Stryker, S., & Leaver, B. (Eds.). (1997). Content-based instruction in foreign language education: Models and methods. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
• Taylor, C. (1986). Cultivating simultaneous student growth in both multiple creative talents and knowledge. In J.S. Renzulli (Ed.), Systems and models for developing programs for the gifted and talented (pp. 307-351). Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press.
• VanPatten, B., & Lee, J. (1990). Second language acquisition - Foreign language learning. Avon: Multilingual Matters.
• Yogman, J., & Kaylani, C. (1996). ESP program design for mixed level students. English for Specific Purposes, 15, 311-24.
March 16 – 17, 2004
Based on insights gained from developing the curriculum for Language Preparation for Employment (Retooling) and Pre-departure Program at UPT Pusat Bahasa and a review of the literature on ESP, this paper is intended to offer theoretical support for ESL instructors developing ESP/EAP curricula for ESL contexts.
Background Information and Statement of Purpose
In late 1990, I was asked to develop a curriculum for a twelve-week course for a select group of lecturers and government employee, and for a three-week course for a select group of S1 graduates who are still unemployed. The course was held at UPT Bahasa ITB and was funded by ‘ BAPPENAS or DIKTI. The curriculum consisted of two distinct phases: language delivery and academic / employment awareness. Although the academic awareness phase was an integral component of the program, the focus of this paper is on insights gained from the language-delivery phase.
Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) identify five key roles for the ESP practitioner:
• teacher
• course designer and materials provider
• collaborator
• researcher
• evaluator.
It is the role of ESP/EAP practitioner as course designer and materials provider that this paper addresses. The premise of this paper is based on David Nunan's observations about the teacher as a curriculum developer.
It seems fairly obvious that if teachers are to be the ones responsible for developing the curriculum, they need the time, the skills and the support to do so. Support may include curriculum models and guidelines • and may include support from individuals acting in a curriculum advisory position. The provision of such support cannot be removed and must not be seen in isolation, from the curriculum (Nunan, 1987, p. 75).
Nunan recognized that issues of time, skills and support are key for teachers faced with the very real task of developing curricula. The intent of this paper is to provide the ESL instructor as ESP/EAP course designer and materials provider with theoretical support. This paper begins with a discussion of the origins of ESP. Some key notions about ESP are then addressed:
• absolute and variable characteristics
• types of ESP
• characteristics of ESP courses
Key issues in ESP curriculum design are suggested: a) abilities required for successful communication in occupational/academic settings; b)content language acquisition versus general language acquisition; c) heterogeneous versus homogenous learner group; and d) materials development.
The Origins of ESP
Certainly, a great deal about the origins of ESP could be written. Notably, there are three reasons common to the emergence of all ESP: the demands of a Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics, and focus on the learner (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) note that two key historical periods breathed life into ESP. First, the end of the Second World War brought with it an " ... age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale for various reasons, most notably the economic power of the United States in the post-war world, the role [of international language] fell to English" (p. 6). Second, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the oil-rich countries. The language of this knowledge became English.
The general effect of all this development was to exert pressure on the language teaching profession to deliver the required goods. Whereas English had previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.7).
The second key reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP was a revolution in linguistics. Whereas traditional linguists set out to describe the features of language, revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which language is used in real communication. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that spoken and written English vary. In other words, given the particular context in which English is used, the variant of English will change. This idea was taken one step farther. If language in different situations varies, then tailoring language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence, in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for Science and Technology (EST). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identify Ewer and Latorre, Swales, Selinker and Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers.
The final reason Hutchinson and Waters (1987) cite as having influenced the emergence of ESP has less to do with linguistics and everything to do psychology. Rather than simply focus on the method of language delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners were seen to employ different learning strategies, use different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and be motivated by different needs and interests. Therefore, focus on the learners' needs became equally paramount as the methods employed to disseminate linguistic knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet these individual needs was a natural extension of this thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is learner-centered or learning-centered.
Key Notions About ESP
In this discussion, four key notions will be discussed. They are as follows: a) the distinctions between the absolute and variable characteristics of ESP, b) types of ESP, c) characteristics of ESP courses, and d) the meaning of the word 'special' in ESP.
Absolute and Variable Characteristics of ESP
Ten years later, theorists Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) modified Strevens' original definition of ESP to form their own. Let us begin with Strevens. He defined ESP by identifying its absolute and variable characteristics. Strevens' (1988) definition makes a distinction between four absolute and two variable characteristics:
I. Absolute characteristics:
ESP consists of English language teaching which is:
designed to meet specified needs of the learner;
related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and activities;
centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, etc., and analysis of this discourse;
in contrast with General English.
II. Variable characteristics:
ESP may be, but is not necessarily:
restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only);
not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology (pp.1-2).
Anthony (1997) notes that there has been considerable recent debate about what ESP means despite the fact that it is an approach which has been widely used over the last three decades. At a 1997 Japan Conference on ESP, Dudley-Evans offered a modified definition. The revised definition he and St. John postulate is as follows:
I. Absolute Characteristics
ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learner;
ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves;
ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities.
II. Variable Characteristics
ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;
ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English;
ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level;
ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students;
Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners (1998, pp. 4-5).
Dudley-Evans and St. John have removed the absolute characteristic that 'ESP is in contrast with General English' and added more variable characteristics. They assert that ESP is not necessarily related to a specific discipline. Furthermore, ESP is likely to be used with adult learners although it could be used with young adults in a secondary school setting.
As for a broader definition of ESP, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) theorize, "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for learning" (p. 19). Anthony (1997) notes that, it is not clear where ESP courses end and general English courses begin; numerous non-specialist ESL instructors use an ESP approach in that their syllabi are based on analysis of learner needs and their own personal specialist knowledge of using English for real communication.
Types of ESP
David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP:
• English as a restricted language
• English for Academic and Occupational Purposes
• English with specific topics.
The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a restricted language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between restricted language and language with this statement:
... the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as 'special', in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situational, as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a restricted 'language' would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situation, or in contexts outside the vocational environment (pp. 4-5).
The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for Academic and Occupational Purposes. In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three branches: a) English for Science and Technology (EST), b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for Technicians' whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP: " People can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a job" (p. 16). Perhaps this explains Carter's rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under the same type of ESP. It appears that Carter is implying that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP are one in the same: employment. However, despite the end purpose being identical, the means taken to achieve the end is very different indeed. I contend that EAP and EOP are different in terms of focus on Cummins' (1979) notions of cognitive academic proficiency versus basic interpersonal skills. This is examined in further detail below.
The third and final type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English with specific topics. Carter notes that it is only here where emphasis shifts from purpose to topic. This type of ESP is uniquely concerned with anticipated future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign institutions. However, I argue that this is not a separate type of ESP. Rather it is an integral component of ESP courses or programs which focus on situational language. This situational language has been determined based on the interpretation of results from needs analysis of authentic language used in target workplace settings.
Characteristics of ESP Courses
The characteristics of ESP courses identified by Carter (1983) are discussed here. He states that there are three features common to ESP courses: a) authentic material, b) purpose-related orientation, and c) self-direction.
If we revisit Dudley-Evans' (1997) claim that ESP should be offered at an intermediate or advanced level, use of authentic learning materials is entirely feasible. Closer examination of ESP materials will follow; suffice it to say at this juncture that use of authentic content materials, modified or unmodified in form, are indeed a feature of ESP/EAP, particularly in self-directed study and research tasks. For Language Preparation for Pre-departure Training, a large component of the student evaluation was based on an independent study assignment in which the learners were required to investigate and present an area of interest. The students were encouraged to conduct research using a variety of different resources, including the Internet.
Finally, self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses in that the " ... point of including self-direction ... is that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users" (Carter, 1983, p. 134). In order for self-direction to occur, the learners must have a certain degree of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. Carter (1983) also adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the learners how to learn by teaching them about learning strategies. Is it necessary, though, to teach high-ability learners such as those enrolled in the health science program about learning strategies? I argue that it is not. Rather, what is essential for these learners is learning how to access information in a new culture.
Key Issues in ESP Curriculum Design
In this section, key issues in ESP curriculum design for ESL contexts are examined. The issues explored here are a product of my professional experience developing the curriculum for Language Preparation for Pre-departure Training and ‘Retooling Program’. This experience has been supported with a review of the literature on ESP.
Abilities Required for Successful Communication in Academic/Occupational Settings
Cummins (1979) theorized a dichotomy between basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). The former refers to the language skills used in the everyday informal language used with friends, family and co-workers. The latter refers to a language proficiency required to make sense of and use academic language. Situations in which individuals use BICS are characterized by contexts that provide relatively easy access to meaning. However, CALP use occurs in contexts that offer fewer contextual clues.
After having developed and taught the curriculum for Pre-departure Training and ‘Retooling Program’, I have reached the conclusion that there are three abilities necessary for successful communication in a professional target setting. I have added a third skill or ability to Cummins' theory in order to complete the ESP picture.
The first ability required in order to successfully communicate in an occupational/academic setting is the ability to use the particular jargon characteristic of that specific occupational context. The second is the ability to use a more generalized set of academic skills, such as conducting research and responding to memoranda. The third is the ability to use the language of everyday informal talk to communicate effectively, regardless of occupational context. Examples of this include chatting over coffee with a colleague or responding to an informal email message.
The task for the ESP developer is to ensure that all three of these abilities are integrated into and integrated in the curriculum. This is a difficult task due to the incredible amount of research required. Close collaboration between content experts and the curriculum developer was not possible during the development stages for the curriculum. In retrospect, the experience and knowledge of health science faculty would have lessened the workload in this area tremendously. Fortunately, there does exist a wealth of information on academic and general language skills. The trick involved in the interweaving process is to develop a model that best integrates the restricted repertoire with the academic and general for the learners in question.
In the case of Language Preparation for Pre-departure Training and ‘Retooling Program’, there were so many possible potential future occupational settings to research and I had to cope with limited development time. I simply opted to identify academic skills that were transferable to most science occupational settings. This required an inventory of all possible science occupations, identification of the past occupational experiences of the learners in the pilot program, and identification of academic language skills. All of this information was then cross-referenced with the general language objectives for the identified group of learners.
It is my opinion that because ESP requires comprehensive needs analysis and because the learning-centred curriculum is not static, it is impossible to expect that the developer be in a position to identify the perfect balance of the abilities noted above for any particular group of learners. In reality, a large part of this responsibility is that of the instructors; it is the instructors who are in the best position to identify changing learner needs and who are in the best position to ensure that all students receive a balanced diet of language.
Content Language Acquisition Versus General Language Acquisition
When I first received the proposal for the Pre-departure Training and ‘Retooling Program’, the ratio of content to language instruction had already been identified: 2 hours of content lecture for every 23 hours of language/content instruction. Given this starting point, one of the central questions that needed to be answered was how much time would be devoted to vocabulary and content knowledge acquisition, as opposed to the time spent developing general and academic language skills.
Although a tentative balance was drafted prior to classroom delivery, the balance shifted on a daily basis. In the end, it was determined by both instructors that more time need be allotted for pure content and more time need be created for team-taught activities. The final weekly breakdown of 25 hours consisted of the following:
o 8 hours of Integrated Language Learning
o 6 hours of Self-Directed Learning (team teach with content instructor)
o 4 hours of Listening
o 3 hours of Speaking and Seminar presentation (team teach with content instructor)
o 2 hours of Tutorial (team teach with content instructor)
o 2 hours of Applied Computer Skills
The first thing that is apparent from this breakdown, is that time devoted to developing general language and academic skills far outweighs the time devoted to the acquisition of content knowledge. However, it was recommended that the content instructor be present for a considerable more amount of time; it was observed that there was such an overlap between content knowledge, academic proficiency, and general language that we could better interweave many of the activities as a team.
The learners indicated that they desired more opportunity to interact with the content instructor, in addition to attending the old-style lecture format. Indeed, both instructors noted that the students were highly motivated to attend the content lectures and yet additional support from the ESL instructor was required because, in order to meet the learners' needs, we could not teach the restricted repertoire in isolation. What is more, it was highly unreasonable to assume that the content instructor would take on the role of ESL instructor.
Finally, it was observed that the majority of the students with post-secondary training possessed a basic knowledge of their own subjects. Consequently, we determined that less time would be devoted to learning terminology in order to follow the content lectures. Most of the students could already recognize meaning, but not produce it. It was determined that more time should be allotted for work on pronunciation and learning the spelling of science terminology. Moreover, much more time would be spent on communication for the workplace; in this way, they students would be afforded ample opportunity to integrate and practice the restricted repertoire acquired in content lectures and the everyday language acquired in the language classes.
Heterogeneous Learner Group Versus Homogeneous Learner Group
There are a number of variables which characterize a heterogeneous learner group. I argue that variations in language level, prior education and work experience can be accommodated only to a certain extent. Minimum entrance standards must be established in the areas of language level, motivation, and prior education and experience. Most importantly, these standards must be strictly enforced at the time of placement.
The project only registered the students who passed the TOEFL score of 475 or higher. The result was that there were some genuinely intermediate students mixed in with a majority of high intermediate, and a few advanced students.
Based on observations of a four-week English for Business course, Yogman and Kaylani (1996) conclude that there appears to be a minimum proficiency level that is required for students to participate in predominately content-related activities. This supports my finding that those students who were struggling to catch up with general language proficiency simply found the content activities to be overwhelming.
Materials Development
Do ESP textbooks really exist? This is central question Johns (1990) addresses. One of the core dilemmas he presents is that "ESP teachers find themselves in a situation where they are expected to produce a course that exactly matches the needs of a group of learners, but are expected to do so with no, or very limited, preparation time" (Johns, 1990, p. 91).
In the real world, many ESL instructors/ESP developers are not provided with ample time for needs analysis, materials research and materials development. There are many texts which claim to meet the needs of ESP courses. Johns (1990) comments that no one ESP text can live up to its name. He suggests that the only real solution is that a resource bank of pooled materials be made available to all ESP instructors (Johns, 1990). The only difference between this resource bank and the one that is available in every educational setting -- teachers' filing cabinets -- is that this one is to include cross-indexed doable, workable content-based (amongst other) resources.
It is my experience that this suggestion is not doable. If teachers are so pressed for time, will they have the time to submit and cross-index resources? Rather, I believe that there is value in all texts - some more than others. Familiarizing oneself with useful instructional materials is part of growing as a teacher, regardless of the nature of purpose for learning. Given that ESP is an approach and not a subject to be taught, curricular materials will unavoidably be pieced together, some borrowed and others designed specially. Resources will include authentic materials, ESL materials, ESP materials, and teacher-generated materials.
Note that an excellent point of departure for novice ESP curriculum developers is with lists of ESL publishers which have been made publicly available on-line. Browsing publishers' sites takes a few minutes, review copies can be requested immediately and copies can be sent express.
Concluding Remarks
This paper has discussed the origins of ESP, addressed key notions about ESP and examined issues in ESP curriculum design. The content of the paper was determined by a need identified based on my professional experience as an ESL instructor designing and delivering the program - Language Preparation for Pre-departure Training and Retooling Program. These issues, where possible, have been supported by current and pertinent academic literature. It is my sincerest hope that these observations will lend insight into the challenges facing the ESL instructor acting as ESP curriculum developer.
Selected References
• Anderson, R., & Ausubel, D. (Eds.). (1965). Readings in the Psychology of Cognition. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
• Anthony, L. (1997). ESP: What does it mean? ON CUE. http://interserver.miyazaki-med.ac.jp/~cue/pc/anthony.htm Retreived April 6, 2000, from the World Wide Web.
• Betts, G. (1985). Autonomous Learner Model for the gifted and talented. Greeley, CO: Autonomous Learning Publications and Specialists. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 268 708)
• Carver, D. (1983). Some propositions about ESP. The ESP Journal, 2, 131-137.
• Crandall, J. (Ed.). (1987). ESL through content-area instruction: Mathematics, science, social studies. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Regents.
• Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19, 121-129.
• Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. (1998). Developments in ESP: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Echevarria, J., & Graves, A. (1998). Sheltered content instruction: Teaching English-language learners with diverse abilities. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
• Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.
• Huang, S., & Shanmao, C. (1996). Self-efficacy of English as a second language learner: An example of four learners. Bloomington, IN: Language Education Department, School of Education, Indiana University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 396 536)
• Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Johns, A., & Dudley-Evans, T. (1991). English for Specific Purposes: International in scope, specific in purpose. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 297-314.
• Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1975). Learning together and alone: Cooperation, competition and individualization. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Johnson, R. (Ed.). (1989). The second language curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Jones, G. (1990). ESP textbooks: Do they really exist? English for Specific Purposes, 9, 89-93.
• Lomperis, A. (1998). Best practices in EOP/EPP: Steps in providing a program. http://my.voyager.net/azure/programI.html Retreived May 8, 2001, from the World Wide Web.
• Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
• Mackay, R., & Mountford, A. (Eds.). (1978). English for Specific Purposes: A case study approach. London: Longman.
• Mackay, R., & Palmer, J. (Eds.). (1981). Languages for Specific Purposes: Program design and evaluation. London: Newbury House.
• McDonough, J. (1984). ESP in perspective: A practical guide. London: Collins ELT.
• Nunan, D. (1987). The teacher as curriculum developer: An investigation of curriculum processes within the Adult Migrant Education Program. South Australia: National Curriculum Resource Centre.
• Nunan, D. (Ed.). (1992). Collaborative language learning and teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Perren, G. (1974). Forward in Teaching languages to adults for special purposes. CILT Reports and Papers, 11, London: CILT.
• Rogers, C. (1983). Freedom to learn for the 80's. Columbus, OH: Charles Merrill.
• Sagliano, M., Stewart, T., & Sagliano, J. (1998). Professional training to develop content-based instruction in higher education. TESL Canada Journal, 16, 36-51.
• Selinker, L., Tarone, E., & Hanzeli, V. (Eds.). (1981). English for Academic and Technical Purposes: Studies in honor of Louis Trimble. London: Newbury House.
• Strevens, P. (1988). ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State of the Art (pp. 1-13). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Centre.
• Stryker, S., & Leaver, B. (Eds.). (1997). Content-based instruction in foreign language education: Models and methods. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
• Taylor, C. (1986). Cultivating simultaneous student growth in both multiple creative talents and knowledge. In J.S. Renzulli (Ed.), Systems and models for developing programs for the gifted and talented (pp. 307-351). Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press.
• VanPatten, B., & Lee, J. (1990). Second language acquisition - Foreign language learning. Avon: Multilingual Matters.
• Yogman, J., & Kaylani, C. (1996). ESP program design for mixed level students. English for Specific Purposes, 15, 311-24.
